Jung’s Psychology and Tibetan Buddhism Western and Eastern Paths to the Heart Radmila Moacanin In her preface to this book, Radmila Moacanin writes of coming into contact with the work of Jung and Tibetan Buddhism very spontaneously and in each case as the result of a series of synchronistic events. Both systems had an immediate and strong impact on me, and I had an intimation that somehow they must be related in a profoundly significant way, despite the fact that they were rooted in very different traditions and developed under very different outward circumstances.’
Dr. Moacanin explores the similarities and differences of these two remarkable systems with authority and very much from the heart. She touches on many of their major ideas: the collective unconscious and karma, archetypes and deities, the self and the I, the analyst and the spiritual friend; mandalas, the union of opposites and the middle way.

Within Tibetan Buddhism she focuses especially on Tantra, which is directly concerned with the process of the growth of consciousness and spiritual transformation, the process that was also the major concern of Jung, who called it
‘the tremendous experiment of becoming conscious … which unites the most diverse cultures in a common task.’
This is the thread that runs throughout the book and gives it impetus and meaning, lifting the ideas and methods of both the Buddha and Carl Jung beyond mere theory into the realm of experience.

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii PREFACE Viii 1 BUDDHISM 1 Tibetan Buddhis m 8 Tantri c Buddhis m – Vajrayana 15
2 C. G. JUNG 23
Collective Unconscious 29
Archetype s 30
T h e Self 32
Individuation 33
Alchem y 35
Synchronicit y 39
3 METHODS IN JUNG’S PSYCHOLOGY AND
TIBETAN BUDDHISM 42
T h e Cur e of Soul s 42
Emancipation from Suffering 48
T h e Spiritual Friend and the Analys t 56 4 ARCHETYPAL SYMBOLS-TANTRA AND JUNG 59
T h e Tibetan Boo k of the Dead 66
T h e Mandal a 69
5 TANTRIC BUDDHISM AND JUNG – CONNECTIONS,
SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES 72
Consciousnes s an d the Unconscious 72

Vi Contents

Spiritual Transformation 77
T h e Unio n of Opposite s 80
T h e Middl e Wa y an d the Madhyamik a 81
E g o an d Non-Eg o 83
Suffering an d Method s of Healing 85
Redemptio n of Go d 89
Jung’ s Vie w of Eastern Traditions 92
Danger s 96
Ethical Issue s 98
CONCLUSION 101
NOTES 107
GLOSSARY ll8
BIBLIOGRAPHY 121

Acknowledgments

M y profound gratitude and heartfelt thanks ,
to m y Teachers , Lam a Thubten Yesh e and Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche , wh o showed me the path to another reality; to Dr. Ira Progoff wh o introduced m e to the world of Jung; to Dr. Russell Lockhart: with his guidanc e the horizons of tha t multi-dimensiona l world expanded beyond all boundaries ;
to m y Mothe r wh o patiently gave m e invaluable help and supportto man y friends an d stranger s in Europe and Asia, America a n d Africa, wh o with their heart s and minds contributed to thi s wor k in man y different ways .

Preface

THIS BOOK HAD its origins in Europe , whe n some year s ago t h e Tibetan Buddhis t master, Lama Thubten Yeshe , flew Wes t from Asi a to give teachings and I flew Eas t from Americ a to receive them. On e day in a private interview wit h him , knowin g of m y interes t in Jung, unexpectedly he aske d m e to give a talk on Jung’ s psychology and its relation to Tibetan Buddhism . I protested: I wa s totally unprepared a n d kne w s o little about it. But Lama gently insisted. Frightened, I kept pleading with him to b e excused from suc h a n impossibl e task, but he wa s relentles s and would n o t hea r of it. For the first and only time that I had know n Lam a Yesh e I truly believed w e had failed to communicate .

Little did I kno w wha t wa s to follow….

Late r tha t ver y sam e da y I quietly sat crosslegged on the floor o f the meditation room in front of a large audienc e of Lam a Yeshe’ s student s and proceeded to deliver the talk. It turned out to b e a memorabl e and a major event in m y life.

Fro m the n o n I wa s gripped by the urge to learn and experienc e mor e of the two traditions. I began travelling on that exciting journe y Eas t and West, Wes t and East, and in my min d each o f the tw o disciplines supplemented, helped explain further, an d enriched each other. A s a result a few year s later thi s boo k wa s produced. Synchronistically, just a s it cam e into being in California, Lama Yeshe after a long absenc e arrived there . I showed him the work, and he immediately encouraged m e to have it published. Onc e again I wa s reluctant, but once again it was a task from which I could n ot b e excused.

T h e boo k attempt s to draw a parallel, and discus s similarities and differences between, Tibetan Buddhism and Jung’ s psychology. Th e purpos e is to identify possible connections so as to mak e a bridge between some aspect s of Eastern and Western philosophical and spiritual traditions, psychological a n d ethical systems .

O n e o f the main problems which I should like to investigat e is the following: since the two traditions have developed at different historical times , unde r vastly different sociocultural conditions , and geographically at two opposite side s o f the world, are they intrinsically so different, and of psychologica l and ethical value only to the peopl e wher e each wa s developed? O r is it possible to reconcile the two traditions , ‘bring the twain together/ allow a cross-fertilization, synthesiz e an d adapt the findings , methods and wisdo m of the respective systems to the needs and conditions of contemporar y society, regardles s of geographical boundaries ?

Othe r related questions which I shall put forward for investigation are a s follows . Ar e ther e possible danger s inherent in allowing the Westerne r to experiment with long established and deeply rooted Eastern traditions? Ar e those danger s du e basically to transplantation of spiritual discipline from on e culture to anothe r – from Eas t to Wes t – in t he wa y the revers e occurred whe n Western industrial technolog y wa s introduced in so-called underdeveloped countrie s of the East, causing disruption of traditional patterns of living and working and consequently often serious damag e to the psychological equilibrium of the individual s concerned? O r are the danger s even mor e fundamental, like thos e the alchemist s kne w and warned us about – that their opus wa s Tike a death-dealing poison/ meaning not only hazards of chemica l poisoning but also of mental aberrations .

Wha t ar e then the precautions and safeguards , if any, in approaching the studie s and practices of an Eastern spiritual discipline which had bee n kept secret for centuries

X Preface

a n d ha s only very recently been revealed to the Western world?

C. G . Jung , the alchemists , and Tibetan Buddhists , have the y all bee n in search of the same truth – Self, Philosopher’ s Stone , Enlightenment ? Hav e their works a commo n core which , if properly understood and practiced, contain a universa l value ?

Is ther e a meaningful coincidenc e in the eighth century prophec y that ‘whe n the iron birds will fly the Tibetans will leave their home, ‘ the prophecy being fulfilled in the very twentieth century which brought C. G . Jung to us ?

Man y Tibetans have found a ne w hom e in Switzerland, o n e of the mos t congenia l places for them outside of Tibet, looking at the sam e Alps which inspired Jung, and which a r e reminiscent of their ow n Himalayas , the surroundings a n d visions wher e the mind can bes t meditate and expand.

Som e year s back, unde r the impac t of the very same force tha t mad e the Tibetans leave their home , I too had to leave mine , an d found temporarily a ne w hom e in Switzerland. It w a s ther e that m y first interes t in Eastern mystical traditions wa s born. It wa s in Switzerland also that I had m y first encounte r with the Dalai Lama . Ever since I me t Tibetans I
hav e often felt grateful, in a strange way, to that ‘evil’ force whic h wa s directly instrumental in bringing us together.

F o r m e this represented a striking example of the possibility o f experiencing that ‘thought transformation’ which the Tibetans teach, and a demonstration of the multi-dimensiona l aspect s of every event.

I cam e int o contac t bot h with the work of Jung and with Tibeta n Buddhis m very spontaneously , and in each case as t h e result of a serie s of synchronisti c events . Both systems h a d an immediat e an d strong impac t on me , and I had an intimatio n that someho w they mus t b e related in a profoundl y significant way , despit e the fact that they wer e rooted in very different traditions and developed unde r ver y different outward circumstances .

In thi s boo k I shall try to encompas s general areas of Jung’ s psychology an d Tibetan Buddhism. Thes e are subject matter s of immens e scope and complexity, both in theory a n d practice, an d voluminous works have been produced in eac h of the areas . Therefor e m y study shall b e limited to certain issue s only dealt with b y Jung , and the relation of alchem y to hi s ow n findings . Th e discussion of Buddhism will focus o n Tantri c Buddhis m and its relation to Jung’ s psychology . I can hardly discus s Tantri c Buddhism, how –
ever, withou t placing it in the broade r context of Tibetan Buddhis m in general. Thi s is the rationale forgiving a brie f overvie w of Tibeta n Buddhism . Th e rationale for dis –
cussin g Tantri c Buddhis m and relating it to Jung’ s psycholog y i s base d o n m y impression that thi s particular form of Buddhis m i s mos t directly concerned with the issues a n d problem s that preoccupied Jung throughout hi s life – abov e all, the proces s of the growth of consciousnes s and spiritua l transformation. Jung refers to it as ‘the tremendou s experimen t of becomin g conscious , which natur e ha s laid upo n mankind , and whic h unite s the mos t divers e culture s in a commo n task. ‘
Despit e its intricate complexity and esoteric nature, Tibetan Buddhis m is essentially a psychological and ethical system . An d unlike othe r philosophical theories and spiritual approache s that have come to us from Asia, Tantric Buddhis m is very muc h a living process , bridging the gap betwee n our deepes t yearnings for symboli c and spiritual mystery , and the demand s of our mundan e life, always stressing that the meanin g of life is in living it.

I hop e to arrive at som e solutions to a few fundamental issue s examined, an d that the result s will demonstrat e and point to interconnections between the two systems . I hope to b e abl e to sho w that it is possible to reconcile an ancient Eastern spiritual discipline with a contemporary Western psychologica l system in a fruitful and meaningful way .

I Buddhism

ONCE UPON A time , in a far-off land there wa s a prince wh o h a d a beautiful wif e and a youn g son. H e wa s called Siddhartha Gautama . H e had lived all hi s life in a big palace and according to hi s father’ s wishe s neve r left the palace. Hi s father, the king, wa s determined to protec t hi s son and heir from seeing an y misery and to offer him all the worldly pleasure s of life. Indeed, Siddhartha tasted to the full all the worldly pleasure s o f life.

B ut on e day h e disobeyed hi s father’ s strict order s neve r to leave the palace grounds . With hi s devoted companion a n d chariotee r Channa , he passed beyond the gate and ventured into the world. H e came acros s an old man, a sick man , an d a dead ma n – three sight s totally unknow n to the youn g prince . H e asked Chann a whethe r he ever saw anything like that. Chann a answered that old age, sickness ,
a n d death mus t com e to all of us . For the first time in his life Siddharth a wa s wounde d by the arrow of a ne w awareness :
t h e suffering of all humanit y from which there is no escape .

Finally, the fourth and decisive sight Siddhartha encountered w a s that of a wandering holy man. H e no longer had a choice : the inne r urgency, hi s newly discovered calling, w a s overwhelmin g an d he too had to leave his home , his royal life and everything he cherished, including his parents, hi s beautiful wife an d small son.

Silently h e left the royal palace for good to embark alone o n a long journey in pursuit of answer s to the riddle of life.

In hi s wandering s h e me t man y famous , learned teachers ,
philosophers ; he studied with them and followed their methods . But non e of the learned me n could answe r his o w n questions , for thes e wer e no ordinary questions , not formulated in his head, but felt deeply in his heart, searching n o t for philosophical and metaphysical speculations but the living truth. So , Siddhartha continued his solitary journey searching for hi s treasure, the only treasure he so desperately wanted , and for which he wa s determined onc e mor e to sacrifice everything. For man y year s he lived in the forest a s a hermit endeavoring to gain control over his body and h i s mind . H e wa s successful in his efforts, but the results wer e a starved, extremely weakened body and a discouraged mind , whil e the treasure he wa s seeking still eluded him.

At th e dept h of hopelessnes s Siddhartha realized that hi s bod y wa s hi s mos t precious instrument, not to be abused through ascetic practices any more than through sense indulgence , both of which he had know n so well. It wa s through h i s huma n body – and through it alone – that he could reach t he treasur e hard to find. No w it wa s time for the former prince , an d the forme r ascetic , again to change his life, to abando n the wa y of self-denial and ente r a mor e balanced path – the Middl e Path. So , he took a meal, bathed, put on fresh clothes . Siddhartha then sat crosslegged unde r a tree, to meditate , and vowed not to remove himself from this spo t till h e found the treasure . An d indeed after many days o f sitting unde r the tree the treasure came to him: in a flash o f illuminatio n h e attained enlightenment, the living truth h e ha d bee n searching for. At that momen t Siddhartha becam e the Buddha , the Awakene d One .

H e lived a long life bringing the treasure he discovered to man y people , youn g an d old, rich and poor, learned and uneducated , to everyone and anyone wh o wa s ready to discove r the treasure for himself; for the treasure wa s to b e found nowher e else but within the depth of each individua l mind . Hi s mortal body died at the age of 80 or so. But Prince Siddhartha Gautama – the Buddha – lived happily ever afte r in the minds and heart s of millions of huma n beings w h o accepted his messag e and mad e it a living reality.

Thi s is the tale of Shakyamun i Buddha , probably one of t he oldest, mos t often repeated, the mos t fantastic of all tales . It ha s been told and ha s inspired countles s huma n beings for tw o and a half millenia.

Wha t wa s the messag e that Shakyamun i Buddha brought to the world? Abov e all that each huma n being ha s the potential to attain enlightenment and become a Buddha .

‘Ma n is hi s ow n master, and ther e is n o higher being or powe r that sits in judgmen t ove r hi s destiny.’ 1 Buddha ,
a nd his follower s to thi s day, can only teach, guide, point to t he path to liberation; each person mus t ente r and walk the path alone , jus t a s Siddhartha did. On e mus t maintain a healthy doub t about the teachings on e receives , n o matte r w h o the authority, including the Buddha , until their validity is clearly confirmed through investigation, analysis , and experience. Only whe n w e have discovered that the teachings are valuable and applicable to our ow n life should w e follow them. Ultimately, w e are our ow n authority in the spiritual quest; ther e is no revealed truth, sacred scripture, n o dogma an d no savior.

T h e essenc e of Buddha’ s teaching and the foundation of all subsequent Buddhis t doctrine wa s expressed in hi s first sermon delivered at Samath , nea r Benares , after his enlightenmen t o n the night of the full moo n of July. In it h e expounded the Four Nobl e Truths :
1 ubiquitous existenc e of suffering in life; 2 the sourc e of suffering is to b e found in selfish craving a nd attachment of all kinds ;
3 cessation, liberation, freedom from suffering is possible; 4 the path leading from suffering to liberation.

T h e Four Nobl e Truths doctrine further elaborates on this path, generally referred to as the Middl e Wa y becaus e it is free from all extremes . It is also called the Nobl e Eightfold Path as it specifies rules of behavior, in thought, speech a n d action, that lead to liberation. The y are:
1 right understanding 2 right though t – purpos e or aspiration 3 right speec h 4 right action 5 right livelihood 6 right effort 7 right mindfulness , awareness , attentivenes s 8 right concentration, or meditation.

Thes e eight categories constitute the foundations of Buddhis t training, which whe n properly applied and followed lead to a balanced an d harmonious life, benefiting both individual an d society. Th e first two categories – right understanding and right thought – have to do with developmen t o f wisdom ; the nex t thre e – right speech, right action, a n d right livelihood – with ethical conduct; and the last two

• right mindfulness , an d right concentration – with mental discipline .

Wisdom , ethical conduct, and mental discipline are interrelated an d ar e to b e pursued simultaneously, each promoting the development of the other. Thus the philosophical, ethical, an d psychological component s togethe r constitute t h e foundation for spiritual development. 2 Fro m thi s simpl e ye t very profound exposition of the Four Nobl e Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path pronounced b y Shakyamun i Buddha , in the subsequent centuries a staggering amoun t of interpretations through oral commentarie s an d written material evolved, often contradictory a n d conflicting. Som e are dealing with plain practical issues, som e with highly philosophical, metaphysical, and onto –
logical problems , but they all claim to derive their authority from the utterance s of Buddh a himself. And indeed they a r e all variations o n the same basi c theme contained in the Fou r Nobl e Truths , Buddha’ s first sermon. Furthermor e the origin of th e different and often controversial aspect s of the doctrine is to b e found in the very approach Shakyamuni Buddh a use d in hi s teachings , the only aim of which wa s to sho w huma n beings the way to emancipation from suffering, that is, liberation. Sinc e suffering is a basi c fact of life the goal is commo n to all but the roads to its elimination are many . To quot e the view on this issue of a contemporary Tibetan lama :
A majo r characteristic of all Buddha’ s teachings is that they are designed to fit the needs and aptitudes of each individual. Sinc e w e all have different interests , problems and ways of life, no one method of instruction could eve r be suitable for everyone .

Buddha himself explained that for the purpos e of reaching a particular disciple coming from a particular background he would teach a particular doctrine . Thu s ther e could b e certain times whe n it might b e necessary to say ‘yes ‘ an d other s whe n it would b e mor e appropriate to say ‘no, ‘ even in respons e to the sam e question. 3 Thi s precisely is the strength of Buddhism, namely the flexibility of its method s and practice, its emphasi s on each individual’ s experience , not intellectual, philosopical knowledg e alone , or blind faith. Nothing, no method is excluded that could lead to the ultimate goal of liberation.

Thi s endow s the teachings with an exquisite ability to adapt to the conditions of various people , living unde r different geographical climates, different cultures, and historical backgrounds . In this sens e Buddhism has truly a universal character, and a relevance to life that has persisted undiminished to this day, for its wisdom is rooted in the depth of the huma n psyche .

With such a wide latitude in matter s of instruction and practice it wa s inevitable that during the ensuing centuries after Buddha’ s death doctrinal differences would emerge a nd a variety of traditions develop. Tw o major systems arose: Hinayana , o r the ‘Lesse r Vehicle, ‘ and Mahayana ,
or the ‘Greate r Vehicle. ‘ Th e former, the Southern School, spread in the countrie s today know n as Burma , Thailand, a n d Sri Lanka , whil e the latter, the Northern School, include s the geographical areas of northern India, Mongolia, Tibet , Sikkim , Bhutan , Nepal, Cambodia , Vietnam, China , Korea , an d Japan.

T h e Hinayana stresses strict moral regulations, and adherenc e to auster e rules of conduct. Th e ultimate goal is attainmen t of one’ s ow n salvation. The highes t stage of individual development, the ideal huma n being, is called an ‘Arhat.’
T h e wor d mean s ‘a slayer of the foe, ‘ and the foe is understood to b e the passions. 4 T h e Mahayan a continue s wher e Hinayana leaves off: the ultimat e goal of Mahayanist s is to seek salvation not for their ow n sake but for the benefit of all beings . And this goal is n o les s than the attainment of Buddhahood. Whil e Hinayan a emphasize s austerity, self-restraint, and high ethical behavior, Mahayan a emphasize s intuitive wisdom to remov e the veil of ignoranc e obscuring our pure essence ,
t he Buddha-natur e dwelling in all of us and which only need s to b e uncovered. To find one’ s true self, realize one –
self, is to realize the inherent Buddha-nature . It has been said that ‘[Hinayana ] emphasize s the humanity of the Buddha ; Mahayan a emphasize s the Buddha-natur e of humanity.’ 5 T h e ideal of the Arha t in Hinayana is replaced in the Mahayan a system by the ideal of the Bodhisattva. From the ideal of a purely private salvation of Arhat s intent upon realizing nirvana , Bodhisattvas have vowed to devote all their pursuit s to the welfare of other s and to work for a universal deliverance of all beings . In them any self-seeking, egoisti c actions and endeavor s are totally absent.

Gentl e and not abusive ,
Without deceit and fraud, Full of love towards all beings –
S o is a Bodhisattva. 6 T h e word Bodhisattva ha s been defined as meaning
‘heroi c being, spiritual warrior,’ or ‘illumined heart and valiant one/ 7 Bodhisattvas , ‘gentle and not abusive/ react spontaneousl y to their impuls e of compassion towards everyon e an d all, an d are fully involved in the affairs of the world; they are in the mids t of it, with all its struggles and tribulations . Their s is not a negative wa y of denying and abandonin g the world, but a positive wa y of affirming it a n d transforming it, by virtue of their great compassion a n d great wisdom . Their life task is to set people free from ignorance , passion, and evil.

Bodhisattva s have made the indestructible resolution to becom e a Buddha , solely for the benefit of others ; they have thus single-mindedly entered and are pursuing the way of t he enlightened being to become fully integrated, free from confusion and inne r conflict. The y have developed the mean s to tap the inne r treasure of others , the latent seeds of enlightenment, which according to Mahayana is the comm o n heritage of humanity. The y are ‘…like the skilful alchemis t wh o by virtue of the powe r of his chemical s can chang e silver into gold and gold into silver.’ 8 O n e naturally wonder s and asks :
Wha t is it that give s the bodhisattva this strength by which he excel s all the rest? It is his capacity to sustain the comprehension of the true nature of things , his capacity to bear with every circumstance devoid of fear and anxiety, and his ability to mee t every situation with unimpeded insight and unbounde d compassion. 9 I have frequently asked myself that same question while in the presenc e of Tibetan lamas , som e of whom , I have not the slightest doubt, have attained the stage of a Bodhisattva.

A n d I hav e also pondered ove r the exquisite ability with whic h the y are capabl e of affecting the minds and lives of man y Westerner s whos e historical and cultural background a n d life styles are s o vastly different from those of people born and raised in Tibet. Perhaps part of the answe r lies in t he following description of the Bodhisattva:
From the very outset he seeks to realize the wisdom that constitute s Buddhahood, viz., the knowledge of all forms , the knowledg e of all the ways of all beings . Thi s is wha t gives the Buddha s and the advanced bodhisattva s the ability to keep themselve s en rapport with every situation and rende r help to each individual in the wa y suited to him. 1 0

Tibetan Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhis m is part of the Mahayana . Whe n it wa s introduced into Tibet from India, in the seventh century AD ,
it me t with the native Bon religion and its shamanisti c practices . A s Buddhism spread, man y Indian scholar s came to Tibet and translated religious texts and their commentaries, until Tibetans themselve s began writing their ow n commentaries . It has been said that on the Tibetan soil Buddhism mixed with the local Bon cult and incorporated some of its features . Th e present Dalai Lama , however, denie s any extraneous influences and states that ‘the Buddhis t teaching tha t spread to Tibet is jus t the stainless teaching of India a n d nothing else. Th e Tibetan lamas neithe r altered it nor mixe d it with anothe r religion.’ 1 1 In the course of time four major schools arose: the Nyingma,
Kargyu, Sakya, and Gelug. Each of thes e school s traces its lineage to different Indian scholars , and consequently pres –
ent s variations in the mod e of instructions , but Tibetans emphasiz e that ther e are n o fundamenta l differences in their philosophy an d spiritual practices . All are in ques t of t h e sam e goal: enlightenment. In fact all adher e to the teachings of both Hinayana and Mahayana , and also Tantrayana (a division of Mahayana). Yana is the Sanskrit word for vehicle. A contemporary lama, in one of his lectures, equated thi s vehicle to a path or an elevator to lift up our consciousnes s to enlightenment.

Ther e are three principal aspect s of that path to enlightenment, the spiritual journey: renunciation, the enlightened motive , an d the correc t view of reality. ‘Blended together the y are like the fuel propelling our rocket to the moo n of enlightenment/ 1 2 I shall no w try to outline them very briefly.

Befor e entering the path, individual s in all their actions are motivated only b y egocentric desires to acquire wealth, power, fame , etc. , to have pleasur e and escape from pain.

B ut little do the y kno w that the scrambl e for wealth, powe r a n d any worldly desire can neve r bring satisfaction. Thi s pursuit is wha t Buddhist s call the condition of samsara – a Sanskrit term whic h mean s ‘circling/ In this life it refers to o ur ingrained strong habit of going around and around in circles , chasing after gratification of desires , pleasures of o n e sort or anothe r which are invariably eluding us . The perpetuum mobile of mundane life, moving from one situation to another, fluctuating from on e moo d to another, desiring an object, acquiring and tasting it, becoming saturated, frustrated, discarding it, and turning around to start the ver y sam e proces s again, and again. W e neve r reach the sought-afte r goal, for the very characteristic of samsara is dissatisfaction – suffering. Th e term samsar a applies also to t he cyclic existenc e of continuous rebirths , out of which ther e is n o escape , until liberation, that is, nirvana. In that sens e samsar a mean s ‘the round of existence. ‘
According to Buddhis t thought the sourc e of samsara is ignorance , that is, unawareness , going about in respons e to the prompting s o f hedonisti c impulses , an unconscious ,
undisciplined, uncontrolled, scattered mind. 1 3 Anothe r kind of ignoranc e is our delusion that phenom –
e n a are permanent, wherea s impermanence , change is the ubiquitous law of nature. W e are attached to people, objects, possessions , situations , and above all to our ow n body and life, an d whe n they change , or ceas e to be , we experienc e suffering. Nurtured b y the desire for permanenc e and nonchang e ‘one’ s mind become s stiff and frozen.’ 1 4 O u r greates t enem y is our selfishness , or as Buddhist s say , ego-grasping, our self-cherishing attitude. All sufferings derive from it. Th e thre e poisons of the mind, greed, hatred, an d ignorance , pollute our thought s and actions a n d bring us confusion, restlessness , and pain. An d as w e scrutiniz e our ow n experience s we find out that with our actions , conscious or unconscious , whethe r motivated by positive or negative thoughts , w e plant seeds that will ripen in the future . Buddhist s would say w e will suffer, or benefit, from the consequence s in future lives, but also, a n d very muc h so, in this life, indeed in our immediat e future . Thi s is the simpl e an d inexorable law of caus e and effect, or karma . Th e actions which inevitably produce future , if not immediate , suffering and harm to ourself or other s are called non-virtuous , unskilful, or negative actions, whil e thos e which produc e positive results are called virtuous actions .

A s Buddhist s repeatedly tell us , all beings , without exception, shar e in commo n the desire to avoid suffering a n d achieve happiness . Ye t through our thought s and actions , an d due to our deluded and polluted mind w e bring to ourself the exact opposit e of wha t w e strive for.

F o r Buddhists , ‘sins ‘ are called ‘non-virtuous actions.’
B y ‘virtue ‘ the y mea n no t only goodnes s and morality, but also efficacy, power, whic h virtuous actions indeed are capabl e o f generating . Greed , pride , ange r and the like, then , ar e non-virtuou s actions whic h lead to mental suffering an d confusion. 1 5 A s huma n beings w e have the precious opportunity and infinite possibilities to activate highe r tendencie s and plant virtuous seeds that lead to spiritual growth, and ultimately liberation. It all depends on our mind. Whe n w e have ‘hit t he bottom ‘ an d have becom e disgusted with our misery, o u r endles s samsari c turmoil, w e reach a renounced mind.

T h e gatewa y to all spiritual path, whethe r leading to personal Liberation or Supreme Enlightenment, is the Fully Renounced Mind. Jus t as a passport, visa, vaccinations and sufficient mone y are necess –
ary befor e w e can undertake a long journey, so also is thi s state of mind essential if w e are to follow the Dharm a successfully….Wha t exactly doe s such a min d renounce ? W e mus t develop renunciation of the cause s of suffering, the menta l afflictions themselves….Renunciation doe s not imply that w e should give up our enjoyment s or possessions . Ther e have been many highly realized beings wh o hav e been kings , wealthy merchant s a nd the like. It is not our possessions but our ignorant, clinging attitude towards them that mus t b e abandoned. 1 6 It needs to b e emphasized that, contrary to popular belief, wha t the min d renounce s is suffering, samsara, a miserable alienated wa y of life, the existential despair – or to put it differently, it renounce s unconsciousness , darknes s of the mind , the mind that is not awakened. Whe n the mind is conscious , awakened, then samsar a is n o more , there is n o dissatisfaction. Indeed the word Buddha mean s simply that – the Awakene d One .

T h e min d ha s the potential to b e awakened, in fact it ha s an urge to awake , ye t it sleeps in ignoranc e and delusions .

Whe n unobstructed b y ignoranc e it experience s peac e and bliss . Some , if not mos t people , have such experiences at leas t a few rare time s in their lives: genuine love, aestheti c experiences , encounter s with extraordinary huma n beings ,
altered state s of consciousness . Thes e are brief, fleeting moment s whe n w e hav e a glimps e of anothe r state of mind, anothe r level of existence , and a recognition that it is within o ur powe r to attain it, her e and now . W e also come to realize that it is no t the external environment, but our mind , our ow n inne r world, that adjudicates over our happines s or suffering. Thi s is like finding a wish-fulfilling jewel.

B ut the fully renounced mind in itself is not sufficient to achieve full enlightenment, according to the Mahayana school, whic h consistently stresses that any action mus t be motivated b y the intention to benefit others , and not merely oneself. Thu s to the concept of the renounced mind mus t b e added ‘the mind of enlightenment, ‘ the enlightened motive, or so-called bodhicitta, which constitutes the second of the thre e principal aspect s of the path to enlightenment.

With the awakening of the mind of enlightenment one become s vitally interested in the welfare of other beings . In fact, Tibetan Buddhist s always refer to all sentient beings ,
n o t only humankind . ‘Like oneself, all sentient beings are afflicted b y suffering; thus even the smallest insect is similar to oneself in not wanting suffering and wanting happiness.’ 1 7 Fro m the awarenes s of the interior states of mind, conscious a n d unconscious , an d the law of caus e and effect that determine s them , one reache s an expanded awarenes s that include s others . From ego-involvement, self-cherishing attitude focusing solely on one’ s ow n being, one move s on to anothe r level wher e one perceives the advantage s and necessitie s to cherish others . Her e too the law of caus e and effec t reigns supreme . From close interpersonal relationships , to social and international relations , the root s of all conflict s an d war s lie in the self-cherishing attitudes . Virtuo u s actions towards other s – in body, speech, and mind –
suc h as refraining from killing, stealing, lying, using harsh language, and developing compassion and generosity, bring genuine an d lasting pleasure and satisfaction. Thes e actions, fre e from egocentricity, have an energizing effect on the perso n wh o performs them, and paradoxically by losing one’ s eg o in a selfles s activity on e finds one’ s Self. The effect s can b e easily checked: thes e are the bes t moment s in anyone’ s life. Again they are found in the presenc e of work s of art of any kind – which is precisely the function of art – in true communication with anothe r huma n being, in creative activity. The y are found though even in small, simpl e act s of everyday life, wheneve r one steps out of one’ s self-imposed egocentri c prison. 1 8 Th e enlightened motive move s one , first to b e concerned with the sufferings of others , and a s a next step to develop a strong motivation to attain enlightenment for the sake of others, that is to guide the m to liberation. Thi s is the wa y of the Bodhisattva wh o know s that th e only wa y to inspire, assis t and guide other s to liberation is to hav e first followed the path oneself and attained enlightenment. But even befor e on e ha s made that determination, every action that has been touched b y the min d of enlightenment, bodhicitta, even the smallest, mos t mundan e action become s powerful. Thus , ‘it is said that giving a handful of food to a do g if don e with bodhicitta, brings us mor e benefit than giving a univers e of jewel s to ever y living being without such motivation.’ 1 9 Th e enlightene d motiv e is like the art of the alchemis t that change s bas e meta l into gold.

T h e third of the thre e principal aspect s of the path to enlightenmen t is the correct view of reality, or the wisdom of voidness , sunyata. Thi s is the mos t difficult concept to comprehend , and it mus t b e grasped through direct experienc e not merel y through intellectual understanding. Yet it is at the heart of all Buddhis t teachings , and inseparable from the tw o other principal aspect s of the path, discussed earlier. It canno t b e explained and understood through rational analysi s but only through gradual development of intuitive wisdom . Th e training in this highe r wisdom is essential becaus e misconceptions about reality are the basic sourc e of all suffering.

T h e ego’ s misconceptions about reality…keeps us in bondage , whethe r it b e the iron bondage of worldly existenc e or the golden bondag e of a spiritual wa y of life. Th e iron bondag e is our continual menta l an d physical suffering in the cycle of dis –
satisfied existenc e know n as samsara , while the golden bondag e is that of being enslaved to mis –
conceptions an d false philosophies….The highes t goal is to b e free of all bondage. 2 0 T h e concept of sunyata , emptiness , ha s given rise to muc h misinterpretation and distortion. Sunya, a Sanskrit word , mean s ‘relating to the swollen. ‘ According to the Buddhis t scholar Edward Conze , the etymology of the word expresse s the unity of opposites , namely wha t is swollen fro m the outside is hollow inside; our personality is both swollen b y th e five skandhas21 and empt y of a self. 2 2 Ther e is n o independent, inherently existent, unrelated self, or T as w e have been accustomed to think. The nature of all phenome n a is emptiness . Philosophically, this is the principle of relativity of all things and conditions . But it is also the principle of limitless potentiality, non-exclusiveness : emptines s can contain an d produc e everything. A synonym for sunyat a is non-duality. O n thi s subjec t the Lankavatara Sutra says :
…wha t is mean t by non-duality? It means that light an d shade , long and short, black and white ,
are relative terms…and not independent of each other; as Nirvana and Samsar a are , all things are not-two . Ther e is no Nirvana except wher e is Sam –
sara; ther e is n o Samsar a except wher e is Nirvana; for the condition of existenc e is not of mutuallyexclusive character. 2 3 T h e lack of a separate , permanen t T doe s not imply its total non-existence , which would be nihilism, anothe r extrem e an d dogmati c viewpoint, equally wrong. Thu s there is a conventiona l T, ‘ which w e all have , that exists on the relative level of reality, whil e on the ultimate, absolute level o f reality it doe s not exist. Th e existence of the five skandhas is conventiona l truth, whil e the void natur e of all phenom – e na is absolute truth. 2 4 This distinction between the relative, mundane , an d absolute , ultimate truth is central to the philosoph y of Madhyamik a (Middle Way), (which I shall return to in a later chapter). According to the present Dalai Lam a it is ‘a theory which remains supreme amon g all the theorie s of different Buddhis t schools.’ 2 5 At this point it is important to emphasiz e again the Buddhis t view that the misconception about reality and the belief in an independent, fixed existenc e of the self is the source of all suffering, a n d that ‘realization of sunyata is like the knife that cut s the root of ignorance.’ 2 6

Tantric Buddhism – Vajrayana

With Tantri c Buddhis m or Vajrayana – the third vehicle, although part of the Mahayana school – Tibetan Buddhism reache s its highes t and mos t magnificent development. By following the short path of Tantra – also know n as the Diamon d Vehicl e – the adept ma y reach enlightenment in o n e singl e lifetime, whil e according to Buddhis t thought all othe r graded paths take an extraordinarily long time, ‘aeon upo n aeon, ‘ to attain Buddhahood.

Tantra, ‘ a Sanskrit word, relates to the concept of weaving , suggestin g activity, continuity, and also interdependenc e an d interrelatedness . Tantri c Buddhism is based on t he philosophy of Madhyamika , which is essentially the concept of the middle way, the view free of the two extremes ,
eternalis m an d nihilism. It is interested neithe r in theoretical an d metaphysica l speculations , nor in the ascetic practices of some othe r sects. Its emphasi s is on the method, on activity and continuity. Th e methods are complex, at time s bewildering, strange and incomprehensibl e to the uninitiated, suggestive of primitive superstition, and shamanisti c magic . Ye t in their essenc e they are all but different methods of spiritual transformation: ways of transmutin g any and all aspect s of samsari c life – positive, nega –
tive, or neutral – into transcendental wisdom. All obstacles ,
negativities , passions are harnessed and transmuted into vehicle s on the path to enlightenment. Goo d and evil are transcended and flow back into pure spiritual essence which is the ultimate natur e of the universe . Thi s is the direct, short path to liberation, the mos t powerful one , as it entails a radical revolution of consciousness , but it is by no means a n eas y path, nor devoid of dangers . It is far from being primitive (in the negative sens e of that term); quite to the contrary , it i s a mos t sophisticated method of spiritual growt h an d transformation. Mircea Eliade point s out that ther e ar e parallels betwee n
…tantrism and the great Western mystero-sophi c current that, at the beginning of the Christian era, aros e from the confluenc e of Gnosticism, Hermetism, Greco-Egyptian alchemy, and the traditions of the Mysteries. 2 7 T h e goal is the sam e as in all other school s of Buddhism, namely , enlightenment, but it is enlightenment here and now , an d not in any inconceivable future. It aims at the permanen t destruction of suffering – the sole concern of Buddh a as expressed in hi s very first sermon, on the Four Nobl e Truths – and follows the conviction that there is an alternative in this existenc e to the misery of mundane life.

It is important to not e that before entering the tantric path t he adept mus t be familiar with and practice at all times the fundamenta l steps of the Hinayana and Mahayana schools .

Restraint, self-awareness , training of the mind, compas –
sion, and cultivation of wisdom are necessary foundations befor e on e venture s into the diamond path. In fact a Tantric maste r of the eleventh century Atisa ‘based his teaching on t he idea that Hinayana , Mahayana and Vajrayana could not b e regarded separately but mus t be seen as aspect s of a singl e path.’ 2 8 Looking at the three yana s together, they are a consistent and natural evolution in Buddhis t theory and practice .

Tantr a implies continuity – the continuity of the move –
men t of one’ s life and inner growth, when spiritual practice i s consciousl y pursued. An d practice leads to an understanding of the interwovennes s of all phenomena , the relationship betwee n microcosm and macrocosm, mind and universe , matte r and spirit – an idea that bear s a striking similarity to the findings of modern science.

It could b e said that the aim of Buddhis t Tantra is to penetrat e into, harness , and transform the dynami c forces of the universe , whic h are no different from the psychological force s and archetypal constellations of our ow n psyche . But this canno t b e don e through the exercise of discursive thought o r application of abstract theories , but onl y b y being deeply immersed in actual practices. Due to t he enormou s wealth of thos e practices, 2 9 Tantra ha s given rise to muc h misunderstanding and misconceptions . In the Wester n world it ha s often bee n equated with magi c and exoti c sexual practices .

A s to the origins o f the Tantra, as well as the similarity or difference s betwee n Hindu and Buddhis t Tantras , there is muc h controversy, an d n o definitive agreement on these issues . According to one author, there wa s no one particular person wh o introduced Tantra into Buddhism at any particular time, but rather that it has been gradually incorporated in the cours e of centuries. 3 0 Th e same author maintains that ther e are n o fundamenta l differences between Hindu and Buddhis t Tantras. 3 1 Othe r scholars , b y contrast, such as Lama Govinda and Benoytas h Bhattachary maintain that Tantri c Buddhism is n o t an offspring of Tantri c Hinduism, as claimed by some ;
it wa s crystallized into a definitive form by the third century A D . Both scholar s affirm that despite outward appearance s of similarity between the two systems , there are fundamental differences . Th e mai n difference, according to Lama Govind a lies in the concept of sakti, the active power, and t he creative feminine aspec t of Siva, the highes t god. Thi s aspec t doe s no t ente r into the system of Tantri c Buddhism.

In the latter th e central idea is no t sakti – power, but prajna –
knowledge , intuitive wisdom. 3 2 It would b e hard though to differentiate wisdo m and powe r in the context of Vajrayana. Wisdom ultimately is power, albeit not the power of the sword, but the force capabl e of affecting transformation, an d Buddhist s repeatedly talk about the powe r of the mind .

Thes e issue s ma y not b e of major significance as far as t h e practice of Vajrayana is concerned. However, since ther e is considerable confusion on this point, it is important to b e awar e of them, and to recognize the prope r distinctions as well as the equivalent s between the two Tantric systems .

T h e polarity of mal e and female principles is a basic Vajrayana concept, and their union is the goal of all Tantric practices . Throug h this union of opposite s all duality is transcended into an absolut e unity. Thi s is the highes t spiritual reality in the path to enlightenment – in fact it is enlightenmen t itself.

In Buddhis t iconography the principle of union is represented b y deities and their consort s in ecstatic embrace ,
enjoying grea t bliss .

According to all school s of Tantra, bliss is the natur e of the Absolute… . Th e Absolut e is realised b y us whe n w e realise our self as perfect bliss . In all our ordinary experience s of pleasure w e have b ut a momentar y glimps e of the same bliss as constitute s the ultimate nature of our self. But thes e experience s of pleasure , becaus e of their extremel y limited and defiled nature , bind us to a lowe r plane of life, instead of contributing to our advancemen t towards self-realisation. 3 3 Bliss , nirvana , enlightenment becom e synonymous in Tantri c Buddhis m – the total immersion of the ultimate natur e o f th e self an d the not-self in the onenes s of the perfec t bliss. 3 4 The sexo-yogi c spiritual practices – the erotic mysticism, so muc h misunderstood in the Wes t – are based o n tha t principle , whe n sexual blis s become s divine blis s a n d the instrument for highes t spiritual attainment.

Buddhis t Tantra holds that the huma n body is the microcos m that embodie s the truth of the macrocosm. Absolute reality contains all dualities and polarities: noumeno n and phenomenon , potentiality and manifestation, nirvana and samsara , prajna (wisdom – female principle) and upaya
(metho d to attain wisdo m – mal e principle), sunya (void)
a n d karuna (compassion). Within their ow n bodies Tantric disciple s achieve the reunion of the two polar principles, that is the primordial unity which excludes all dismirtination a n d include s all differentiations . Or, in other words ,
through the mediu m of their bodies they transcend the mundane , phenomena l world and experienc e non-duality, t he completenes s preceding all creation, the Great Bliss. All Tantri c practices , rituals and meditations – the so-called sadhanas – hav e as their aim thi s realization.

Thi s is the dialectic of opposites , the theme of the Madhyamik a philosophy, the Middle Way, that encompas –
s e s and embrace s all. But Tantri c disciples are mor e concerned with direct knowledg e of that state, achieved in the actuality of their practice.

Right in that momen t whe n the Grea t Compassion arises Emerge s nakedly and vividly the Grea t Voidness .

Let m e always find this unmistakabl e Two-in-On e Path A n d practice it day and night. 3 5 T h e Tibetan Buddhis t symbol of the Two-in-On e is yabyum, the father-mothe r divine coupl e in embrace , seen repeatedly in Tibetan sacred art, and which both inspires a n d expresses visually the experiences and visions of meditation. Lama Govinda states that in thes e symbol s there is no association whateve r with physical sexuality. They portray onl y the union of mal e and female principles – the eternal femal e qualities , a s thos e of the ‘Divine Mother, ‘ or Transcendenta l Wisdom . ‘…Instead of seeking union with a woma n outside ourselves , w e have to seek it within ourselves…by the union of our mal e and female nature in the proces s of meditation.’ 3 6 Lama Govinda holds the view that sexua l polarity ha s to be recognized as a mer e incident of universa l polarity an d ha s to be overcome. 3 7 Onl y if w e are able to se e the relationship of body a nd mind , of physical and spiritual interaction in a universa l perspective , and if in this wa y w e overcome the T and ‘mine ‘ and the whol e structure of egocentri c feelings , opinions , and prejudices ,
whic h produc e the illusion of our separate individuality, then onl y can w e rise into the spher e of Buddhahood. 3 8 Nevertheles s conjugal intercourse (maithuna) ha s been practiced b y Tantri c Buddhist s as a sacred ritual, based on t he same concept of the union of male and female principles.

S.B . Dasgupt a examine s the argument of the Tantri c Buddhist s in defence of their unconventional practice of maithuna.
The y emphasiz e that everything depends on the purity of t he mind: actions motivated b y and don e with wisdom and compassion , with a pur e mind, cannot but b e pure . But the y also war n that it is a very dangerous path for the uninitiated. ‘That which drags the uninitiated fool to the hell of debaucher y ma y help the initiated yogin to attain enlightenment/ 3 9 Th e vital point is the adherenc e of the yogi and yogini to their vo w to perform any action with a compassionat e mind and with wisdom, that is, the know –
ledg e and understanding of the void natur e of all phenom –
ena . S o it is said that:
A s som e medicine is swee t to taste and at the same time cure s disease , so also is the bliss coming out o f the combination of Prajna (wisdom) and Upaya
(compassion) – it destroys the afflictions easily a nd smoothly… . Again, wha t to on e is a rope for hangin g oneself, is the remove r of bondag e to the other. 4 0 Anothe r scholar, Herbert Guenther, similarly argues in favor of pleasur e as being a life-enhancing state. ‘We ma y u s e such phrase s as ‘ecstatic bliss ‘ or ‘great bliss ‘ to refer to t he sens e of freedom from the impoverishment brought about by ego-centredness.’ 4 1 Her e is ho w some of the Tantri c text s spea k o n the subjec t of bliss .

T h e All-Buddha-Awarenes s which is experienced within ourselve s Is called Grea t Bliss becaus e it is the mos t excellent pleasur e of all pleasures .

Without bliss ther e is no enlightenment, for enlightenment is blis s itself.

Jus t as in deep darknes s the moon-stone spreads its light, S o this supreme Grea t Bliss in a moment dissipates all misery. 4 2 However, thi s is b y no means hedonism; quite to the contrary it requires extraordinary discipline, and it is only through consistent discipline that true freedom is acquired.

O n the path towards freedom any passion and desire mus t be utilized and transformed into wisdom. Thi s is the very basi c principle of any Tantric practice. In this respect it is similar to homeopathy, working on the principle that like cure s like. Th e very sam e element that cause s a disease if applied in a prope r dos e ma y act as an antidote and cure the sam e disease .

T h e Vajrayanis t will also say that the very action whic h binds a ma n dow n to the world of infinite misery ma y help him to attain liberation, if taken from a different perspective , i.e., if taken with the knowledg e of the Prajna and the Upaya. 4 3 A s in homeopathi c medicine , symptoms are not suppressed but rathe r caused to exacerbate temporarily as a necessar y step towards their complet e elimination. Thus ange r is cured with anger, desire with desire, and so on, whe n transmuted into wisdom. But w e are dealing here with a double-edged sword: the way may lead to Ulumination or pathology. For thi s reason the path cannot be followed withou t the guidanc e of a qualified compassionat e teacher w h o himself ha s attained wisdom . Thi s is also the reason w h y th e teaching s and actual practices have been kept secret: to achiev e the desired effect and value, they can b e transmitte d only through a highly developed teacher, and unde r prope r circumstances . But in fact they are bound to remai n secre t to the uninitiated for, like any esoteric teachings , the y can b e communicated only gradually and to the extent that on e i s ready to receive them, or rather to discove r the m for oneself.

In th e proces s of transformation and the achievement of highe r state s of consciousnes s numerous aids are used and a grea t variety of worship s and rituals practiced. They are all designe d to involve totally the three aspect s of our being , tha t is , body , speech, and mind . Their purpos e is to activat e an d conjur e up powerful but dormant forces from t h e dee p level s of the unconscious ; it is a confrontation wit h ou r innermos t natur e to awaken us .

T h e thre e basi c and prevalent methods are: recitation of mantra s – sacred words – involving the speech; performance of ritual gesture s – mudra s – involving the body; meditation, especially visualization of and identification with deities –
involving th e mind.

I shall return to thes e methods in a subsequent chapter, a n d discus s them and their meaning in mor e detail, as well a s the symbolism an d function of mandalas . At this point it m a y suffice to state that:
T h e ai m of all the Tantra s is to teach the way s whereb y w e ma y set free the divine light which is mysteriously present and shining in each one of u s , although it is enveloped in an insidious we b of t he psyche’ s weaving. 4 4

2 C. G. Jung

TWO AND A half millenia after Buddha and about a century ago , on the othe r side of the globe from India, Carl Gustav Jun g wa s born. H e wa s born and lived his entire life in Switzerland, in that lovely, peaceful country in the heart of Europe an d the Western World, the country which ha s know n n o war s for many , man y years . Hi s parent s and ancestor s on both sides wer e traditional people, deeply rooted in the Swis s soil and customs which endur e and tolerate n o change . H e loved hi s country, but since early a g e h e felt that its beauty belonged to a space and a time that far transcended the narrow boundarie s of that tiny nation and its immovabl e society. Hi s very first memorie s –
first intimation of something larger than himself – wer e memorie s of wonde r as he stood in awesome contemplation of the blue water s of Lake Constance , and the white , snow –
covered peaks of the majesti c Alps . Already then he had a sens e that thi s wa s the cente r of the universe – but not the univers e of hi s parent s and the few million Swis s – but of a very private universe within himself which he saw mirrored in the quiet water s of the lake, and extending to the peaks of t he Alps , an d beyond into infinity. H e grew up as a shy sensitive boy, often at odds with his parents ‘ beliefs and hi s teachers ‘ demands . H e felt both very special and at time s inadequat e in school in comparison to his classmates.

H e wa s easily hurt an d wa s prone to outburst s of rage whe n injustice wa s don e to him – when , for example , his teacher accused him of cheating. But it wa s in such moment s that h e sough t and found refuge in his personality Numbe r Two , as he used to call it. This personality was his true authenti c self, reaching deep into the root s of mankind itself, perhaps even befor e mankind was .

Somewher e deep in the background I always knew that I wa s two persons . On e wa s the son of my parents , wh o wen t to school and wa s less intelligent, attentive, hard-working, decent, and clean than man y othe r boys . Th e other wa s grown up –
old, in fact – skeptical, mistrustful, remot e from t he world of men , but close to nature, the earth, the sun, the moon, the weather, all living creatures, a n d abov e all close to the night, to dreams , and to whateve r ‘God ‘ worked directly in him. 4 5 Thi s ‘other’ wa s a fragile, frail personality that often eluded him, and so he had to push forward with his socalled personality Numbe r One , a sham, a game , that gradually mor e an d mor e satisfied all around him, except his ow n self. S o he continued his path, going from one succes s to another; whateve r he worked at he accomplished with flying colors . But the turmoil inside neve r left him, and wa s a constan t prodde r that led him astray from wher e everyone around him expected him to go: while his personality Numb e r On e wa s brilliant, hi s personality Numbe r Tw o wa s aching with pain, the pain of unfulfilled wholeness . H e searched for that wholenes s all his life.

H e heard of a professor in Vienna . H e went to see the professor, and paid his respec t to him as he mistook him for a genius wh o wa s not understood by others . They became clos e friends and associates . Jung’ s personality Numbe r Two , however, rebelled at the very instance of their first encounter. But he refused to heed his personality Numbe r T w o which wa s still wea k and submerged at that time. The professo r in Vienna became famous , and as his fame grew their friendship dwindled. Onl y later Jung understood: it w a s not their friendship that dwindled, it wa s his personality Numbe r Tw o that became an individual in his ow n right. Th e professor from Vienna and Jung parted. Thi s wa s t he greates t shock in his life. It threw him into darknes s such a s he had neve r know n before. But out of all of it his entir e wor k emerged.

H e had left behind not only his friend from Vienna , to who m h e nevertheles s always remained grateful, but also his personality Numbe r One . From then on Jung devoted himself fully to hi s personality Numbe r Two . Many people from all the corner s of the world came to see him and inspire him, as he inspired them. Alone in his stone tower he wa s in deep and intimate contact with everything and everyone that wa s at that time, that preceded him, and would follow him. O n a stormy day in late spring, at the age of eighty-five, his long and rich life came to an end. His personality Numbe r On e finally left him for good. But his personality Numbe r Tw o goes on living, for there was no time whe n it wa s not and there can be no time it will cease to be… .

‘ M y life ha s bee n in a sens e the quintessenc e of wha t I
hav e written,’ 4 6 says C. G . Jung in the introduction to his autobiography. S o his entire life, his myth, should be viewed as an indivisible whole , that proceeded as a gradual and continous unfoldment out of its ow n unique seed. N o event, no aspec t of hi s oute r or inne r life are unimportant or irrelevant to hi s work.

M y life is wha t I have done , m y scientific work; the o n e is inseparabl e from the other. Th e work is the expression of m y inne r development; for commitmen t to the content s of the unconscious forms the m a n an d produce s his transformations . My works c an b e regarded as stations along m y life’s way. 4 7 Ther e wa s a particularly pregnant time in Jung’ s life whe n ne w ideas wer e germinating and which wer e later to occup y him for the rest of his life. Thi s wa s the period following hi s break with Freud, whe n for a while he lost his bearings . It wa s a time of confusion, turmoil, isolation, lonelines s – of inne r chaos . Jung wa s assailed with confusing dreams , images , visions , a surge of unconscious material tha t at time s made him doubt hi s ow n sanity. And indeed, in a sens e it wa s not unlike a psychoti c break. But it w a s also a crucial intersection, a mos t creative station along h i s life’s way . Thes e wer e the year s of Jung’ s confrontation wit h hi s unconscious .

Her e the vision of the young Siddhartha Gautama come s bac k to ou r mind. Th e well protected innocent prince suddenl y shocked b y the sight s of the tragic side of life –
sickness , old age , an d death – hi s determination to find answer s to the riddle of life, first unsuccessfully from learned men , an d finally from within himself, in deep meditation unde r the bodhi tree. Similarly, Jung could not find answer s to hi s questions eithe r from Freud or anyone else, or any book s an d theories , an d so like Siddhartha , he left behind all o f them , to look for answer s within hi s ow n psyche . In h i s autobiography Jun g tells us h e had to undergo the original experienc e himself. On e day he sat at hi s desk, let himself drop , and plunged into the depths of his psyche ,
submitting to the spontaneous impulses of his unconscious. 4 8 Thi s wa s the very beginning of an experiment which lasted for several year s and produced a wealth of material, later to becom e part of Jung’ s mos t important works , his mos t creative contributions . Throughout that time h e not only observed carefully but wrot e down, and embellished with drawings , hi s dreams , fantasies and visions , and they all becam e part of hi s famous Red Book. But being trained as a scientist, h e felt the obligation to understand the meaning o f all that material. ‘I had to dra w concrete conclusions from t h e insight the unconscious had given m e – and that task w a s to becom e a life’s work.’ 4 9 H e had to sho w that his very personal, subjective experiences were potential experiences o f all humankin d for they wer e an inherent part of the natur e of the psyche. 5 0 It was , though, a revolutionary way in scientific methodology , ‘a ne w wa y of seeing things.’ 5 1 Abov e all Jun g had to prove that hi s ow n experiences wer e real, which other s could have too: that the unconscious w a s a demonstrabl e psychi c reality, but which had its ow n style an d spok e its ow n language , namely the universal language of image s and symbols . Furthermore Jung became awar e that the insight s gained from the unconscious mus t b e translated into an ethical obligation.

N o t to do so is to fall prey to the powe r principle, a n d thi s produce s dangerous effect s which are destructive not only to other s but even to the knower. Th e image s of the unconscious place a great responsibility upon a man. Failure to understand them, or a shirking of ethical responsibility,
deprives him of his wholeness and imposes a painful fragmentariness on his life.52 Thi s though t is reminiscent of Buddhis t ethics , as enunciated in the ‘Eightfold Path, ‘ that is, right action and right meditation. Personal suffering cannot b e eliminated, and individual wholenes s achieved, whe n ethical conduc t is n o t observed. Jung understood, as Buddha pointed out long ago, that mer e ego-centered pursuit s in disregard of other s lead to confusion. Thus knowledge acquired through contac t with the unconscious – through ‘right meditation’ –
in orde r to hav e any significance, mus t becom e an integral part of one’ s life; it mus t b e translated into ‘right action.’
Afte r about six year s of a fierce struggle with the darknes s o f hi s unconscious , Jun g began to have the first inklings of light. Th e daw n appeared whe n he started sketching mandala s – on e ne w mandal a every day. A mandala, which is the Sanskrit word for circle, is the circular pattern form foun d in all element s of nature , and in the arts and dance s of all people , throughout history. It is also an image residing in the depth s of huma n psyche which spontaneously emerge s an d assume s man y different forms . It usually takes shap e in time s of disorganization and inne r chaos , and it is nature’ s wa y of restoring balance and order. Jung discovered, throug h hi s ow n experience , that each single mandal a he dre w wa s an expression of hi s inne r state of being at that particular time. As his psychic state changed so did the mandal a h e would spontaneously sketch. H e came to the conclusion that the mandala represented ‘Formation, Trans –
formation, Eternal Mind’ s eternal recreation.’ 5 3 At the same time he realized that the efforts he pursued consciously, prompte d so to speak by his personality Numbe r One ,
wer e undermined by a stronger force which compelled him to take a different path. In othe r words , he could not choos e a goal, rathe r it chos e him.

I had to let myself be carried along by the current, without a notion of wher e it would lead me . Whe n I began drawing the mandalas , however, I saw that everything, all the paths I had been following, all the steps I had taken, wer e leading back to a singl e point – namely, to the mid-point. It became increasingly plain to m e that the mandala is the center. It is the exponent of all paths . It is the path to the center, to individuation. 5 4 Thu s the forceful and persistent question in his mind w a s answere d – the question as to wha t this proces s is all about, an d wha t its destination is. The goal was the Self, t he alpha and omeg a of psychi c development, for the Self is t h e proto-image out of which the person emerge s and the culmination of hi s growth.

A n d then Jun g had a dream that wa s both symboli c of his situation at the time (darknes s and isolation, but also emergin g vision of light and flowering of new life), and throug h its elaborat e imagery unmistakably pointed to the center, the Self, as the goal.

Throug h thi s dream I understood that the Self is t he principle and archetype of orientation and meaning . Therein lies its healing function. For m e , this insight signified an approach to the center a n d therefor e to the goal. Ou t of this emerged a first inkling of m y personal myth. 5 5 Thi s wa s an event of tremendous importance , a turning point in Jung’ s life and his work. It wa s the climax of his confrontation with the unconscious , hi s six year s of solitary battle with the dark depths of hi s psyche . Jung describes thes e year s as t he mos t important in m y life – in them everything essential wa s decided. It all began then; the later detail s ar e only supplement s and clarifications of t he material that burs t forth from the unconscious ,
a n d at first swampe d me . It wa s the prima materia for a lifetime’ s work. 5 6 It wa s during thos e year s that he mad e the discovery of t he collective unconscious and developed the concept s of t he archetype s and the Self. But much work still lay ahead of him: all the fantasies and material that had flooded him from the unconscious and the insight s h e gained needed to b e built o n a solid foundation of scientific theory. Tha t wor k gradually unfolded as Jung encountered alchemy.

In alchem y h e discovered that, unlike in Christianity, the feminine principle is as important as the masculine . The symbol s in alchemy, ‘thos e old acquaintances ‘ of Jung, fascinated him. 5 7 But he began really to understand it after reading a Chines e alchemical text, The Secret of the Golden Flower.58 Thi s wa s also probably the beginning of hi s intere s t in Orienta l philosophie s and spiritual traditions. To Jun g ‘the secre t of the alchemy wa s in…the transformation of personality through the blending and fusion of the noble with the bas e components…o f the conscious with the unconscious.’ 5 9 In alchemy he found a correspondenc e to h i s psychology , whic h gave hi s work a confirmation of its validity. It wa s not howeve r the end produc t of Jung’ s creativ e journey , for h e did not stop with psychology: he wen t beyon d it.

Collective Unconscious

Jung’ s greates t contribution to psychology wa s his theory of t he collective unconscious . H e argued that this concept wa s n o t a speculative idea or a philosophical postulate, but there w a s an empirical proof for it. 6 0 H e defines the collective unconscious as the part of the psyche that owe s its existence exclusively to heredity, and not to personal experiences which h a d bee n conscious at on e time and then disappeared from consciousness . Th e latter is the layer of the psyche which he call s the persona l unconscious and which contains all the materia l tha t the individual ha s merely forgotten or repres –
sed , eithe r deliberately or unintentionally. 6 1 Thu s Jung make s the distinction between the personal unconscious ,
t h e subjective psyche , and the objective psyche which he call s the impersonal, transpersonal, or collective unconscious . H e discovered the collective unconscious through h i s ow n dream s and visions , a s well as thos e of hi s patients ,
including fantasies of schizophrenics . H e observed that all thi s material often contained mythological motif s and religious symbols . Jung then came to the following conclusion:
In addition to our immediat e consciousness , which is of a thoroughly persona l nature and which w e believe to b e the only empirical psyche (even if w e tack o n the persona l unconscious as an appendix),
there exist s a second psychi c system of a collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is identical in all individuals . Thi s collective unconscious does n ot develop individually but is inherited. It consists o f pre-existent forms , the archetypes , which c an onl y becom e conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychi c contents. 6 2

Archetypes

According to Jung, archetype s – the content s of the collective unconscious – are analogous to instincts. Both are fundamenta l dynami c forces in the huma n personality which pursue their inherent goals, in the psychic or physiological organisms respectively. Jung also refers to archetype s as primordial images , ‘the mos t ancient and the mos t universal thought-form of humanity. The y are as much feelings as thoughts.’ 6 3 But it should be stressed that archetypes are not inherited ideas ; they ar e merely propensities in the huma n psych e whic h can expres s themselve s in specific forms and meanin g whe n activated.

Ther e ar e as man y archetype s as there are typical situations in life. Endles s repetition ha s engraved thes e experience s into our psychi c constitution, n o t in the form of image s filled with content, but at first only as forms without content, representing merely the possibility of a certain type of perception a n d action. Whe n a situation occur s which corresponds to a given archetype, that archetype becomes activated and a compulsivenes s appears , which, like an instinctual drive, gains its wa y agains t all reason and will…. 6 4 In developin g the concept of archetype s and their dynamis m Jun g quote s a remarkabl e example : the genesi s of the idea of conservation o f energy, credited to Robert Maye r in t he nineteenth century. Th e latter wa s not a physicis t wh o migh t b e naturally preoccupied with such a concept, but a physician, an d the idea came to him in a mos t extraordinary way , during a voyage in the tropics. Her e is wha t Maye r wrot e about hi s experienc e and discovery:
I’m far from having hatched out the theory at m y writing desk. [He then reports certain physiological observations he had made…a s ship’s doctor]. Now, if on e want s to b e clear on matter s of physiology, som e knowledge of physical processes is essential, unles s on e prefer s to work at things from the meta – physical side, which I find infinitely disgusting. I
therefor e held fast to physic s and stuck to the subjec t with such fondnes s that, although man y m a y laugh at m e for this , I paid but little attention to that remot e quarter of the globe in which w e were , preferring to remain on board wher e I could wor k without intermission, and wher e I passed man y a n hour a s though inspired, the like of which I canno t remembe r either befor e or since. Som e flashe s of thought that passed through m e whil e in the roads of Surabaya wer e at onc e assiduously followed up, and in their turn led to fresh subjects .

Thos e times have passed, but the quiet examination of that which then came to the surface in m e has taught m e that it is a truth, which cannot only be subjectively felt, but objectively proved. It remains to b e see n whethe r this can be accomplished by a m a n so little versed in physic s as I am. 6 5 T h e question that Jun g asked himself is: wher e did this n e w idea com e from and impos e itself upo n consciousness , a nd wha t is the force behind it that overwhelmed the personality? An d the answe r can b e found only in applying hi s theor y of archetypes , that is, that ‘the idea of energy and its conservation mus t b e a primordial image that wa s dormant in the collective unconscious.’ 6 6 Jung then proceeds to demonstrat e that such a primordial image indeed existed sinc e mos t primitive times , expressed in man y different forms , as for exampl e the idea of daemonism, magi c power, soul’ s immortality, and man y others . Th e notion of energy, its preservation or rathe r transmutation, is the central concept in all Tantras .

The Self

A s already stated, ther e are countles s archetypes , but the o n e that encompasse s all others , the quintessential arche –
type is the Self. It is the organizing, guiding and uniting principle which gives the personality direction and meaning in life. It is the beginning, the source of the personality and its ultimate goal, the culmination of one’ s growth, that is, self-realization. Th e Self i s the homo totus, the timeles s man , tha t no t onl y expresse s hi s uniqu e individuality and wholenes s but i s the symbo l of man’ s divinity, whe n he touche s the cosmos , hi s microcosm reflecting the macrocosm .

Intellectually the Self is no more than a psychological concept, a construc t that serves to expres s an unknowabl e essenc e which w e cannot grasp as such, sinc e by definition it transcends our power s of comprehension . It might equally well be called the
‘Go d within us. ‘ The beginnings of our whol e psychi c life see m to be inextricably rooted in this point, and all our highes t and ultimate purpose s see m to b e striving towards it. 6 7 Jun g also refer s to the Self as being both unitemporal and unique , and universal and eternal, the one expressing man’ s essence , and the othe r being a God-image , an archetypal symbol. 6 8

Individuation

Betwee n the stage s of the self as a source in the beginning, a n d the self as a goal, in its ultimate destination, there is an ongoin g continuity of development, which Jung has called t he proces s of individuation. It is the proces s of integration of the personality. Thi s archetypal, universal psychic process is autonomou s and unconscious , and it has run its course sinc e immemoria l time . It reflects psyche’ s striving to harmoniz e its conscious and unconscious contents , and it is the natural and spontaneous urge for self-realization, wholeness , an d the ques t for meaning. Collectively it has bee n expressed in the multitude s of myths and symbol s in whic h mankind ha s given outward form to its inner experiences . O n an individual level, although the proces s always goe s o n sinc e the psyche neve r rests , it may remain purely unconscious , or ma y become a conscious task. Whethe r it will lead in on e direction or the othe r depends on the intervention of consciousness . Th e difference between the two roads is tremendous , and their outcome far reaching. In o n e instanc e whe n consciousnes s is not involved, ‘the end remains as dark as the beginning.’ In the other instance ‘the personality is permeated with light’ and consciousnes s is furthe r extended and enhanced. 6 9 Throug h alchemy and its symbolism Jung became aware tha t the transformation of personality takes place in the interaction betwee n the ego and the unconscious , out of whic h a ne w unified being emerges . It is a new being, yet n o t entirely ne w for it wa s always there, but dormant and hidde n in the chaos of the unconscious . The proces s require s an ope n communication between the conscious min d an d its unconscious counterpart, a sensitivity to the signal s of the unconscious which speaks in the language of symbols . It is the constant dialogue between the outer and t he inner, the mundan e life and its symboli c dimensions –
dreams , fantasies , visions .

T h e arduous task of conscious confrontation with the unconsciou s ha s the effect of expanding consciousness , of diminishing the sovereign power s of the unconscious , and bringing about the renewa l and transformation of personality. Thi s change , which is the central objec t of alchemy, a n d of Jung’ s psychotherapy, come s about through the principl e whic h Jun g called the transcendent function. 7 0 Indeed it is mor e than an arduous and often painful task, as Jun g experienced himself. It is a battle between two opposin g forces , each contending for its ow n rights, the battle betwee n reason and rationality versus chaos and irrationality. At the sam e time it has to be a collaboration betwee n the conscious and unconscious attitudes of the psyche : consciousnes s mus t heed its unconscious counterpart, mus t listen to the inne r voices , so that the latter can co-operat e with consciousnes s instead of disturbing it.

T h e confrontation of the two positions generates a tension charged with energy and creates a living, third thing – not a logical stillbirth…but a move –
men t out of the suspension between opposites , a living birth that leads to a ne w level of being.. .

7 1 Sinc e the process aims at the total transformation of personality, nothing that belongs to it, no aspec t of it, mus t b e excluded. 7 2 An d the consummation of this union of opposites , in orde r to create ne w life – not a logical stillbirth –
mus t b e attended not only by Logos , the rational principle, b ut b y Eros too, the principle of relatedness. 7 3 S o , individuation leads from oneness , emptiness , the undifferentiated state of unconsciousness , participation mystique,74 to ever-increasing differentiation, the supremacy of the ego , to oneness , emptines s again, that has become fullnes s – to the Self, the mandala . The end has rejoined its beginning , and the ultimate goal its original source.

Alchemy

T h e evolution of personality, or as Jung called it the individuation process , ha s bee n expressed in different terms by t he symbolism of alchemy. Even though the alchemist s set themselve s the task of revealing the secret s of matter and chemica l transformation, their labor primarily reflected a parallel psychi c process , which me t with a strong resonance in Jung’ s mind and had an enormous impac t on his work.

T o Jun g the chemica l experiment s of the alchemists , the whol e alchemical opus, wa s of a psychi c natur e rather than t he search for the secret of gold-making. The alchemist s themselve s proclaimed that ‘Aurum nostrum non est aurum vulgi/75 Whil e working in hi s laboratory the alchemis t had certain psychi c experience s that he attributed to the propertie s of the matter; Jung believed that in fact he wa s experiencing hi s ow n unconscious . ‘In seeking to explore it
[the matter] he projected the unconscious into the darknes s of matte r in orde r to illuminate it.’ 7 6 It ha s bee n generally understood that the purpos e of alchemy wa s to produce a miraculous substance, gold, panacea , elixir of life. But in actuality, above and beyond that, the very essenc e of all alchemical work wa s a spiritual exercise whos e goal wa s none other than spiritual transformation, liberation of Go d from the darknes s of matter. 7 7 T h e bewildering profusion of complicated and often grotesque alchemical symbolism describes pictorially the proces s of chang e from psychic sleep to awakening, and the stage s along that journey. Jung found in this symbolism an illustration of wha t he had called the proces s of individuation: one’ s gradual unfoldment from an unconscious to a conscious state, and the healing process underlying it. 7 7 In medieva l European alchemy, which he discovered by w a y of Chines e alchemy, Jung found the spiritual roots of a Wester n tradition that addressed itself to the same issues whic h preoccupied him all his life. Thus alchemy provided h i m wit h a historical foundation as well as validation for h i s ow n findings .

As in Jung’ s psychology, opposite s and their union play a majo r role in alchemical procedure . The union is the motivating force and the goal of the process . But at the beginnin g of the proces s the opposites form a dualism, conceived in numerou s terms such as : uppe r and lower, cold an d warm, spirit (soul) and body, heaven and earth, bright an d dark, active and passive, precious and cheap, goo d an d evil, open and hidden, inner and outer, East and West, god an d goddess , masculine and feminine. 7 8 T h e primal opposites are consciousnes s and unconscious –
nes s whos e symbol s are Sol and Luna – sun and moon – the o n e representing the diurnal and the othe r the nocturnal side of consciousness , the mal e and female principles. The correspondin g alchemical substance s are sulphur and salt.

Sulphur, becaus e of its association with the sun, is the masculine principle expressing consciousness . In alchemical text s it is referred to as ‘the mal e and universal seed, ‘ the
‘spirit of generative power, ‘ the ‘source of illumination and all knowledge. ‘ It ha s a doubl e nature: in its initial crude form it is burning and corrosive, and has an offensive odor, b u t whe n transmuted, ‘cleansed of all impurities , it is the matte r of our stone.’ 7 9 Salt, becaus e of its association with t he moon , is the feminine principle and expresses various aspect s of the unconscious . Like its counterpart sulphur, salt contains a doubl e nature : in its unrefined form, coming from the sea, it is bitter and harsh, like tears and sorrow, yet at the same time it is the mother of wisdom when transmuted.

A s the principle of Eros , it connect s everything. Salt is also associated with earth, and as such represent s the Great Mothe r and the archetype of the feminine deity.

Starting with the original substance , the prima materia whic h contains the opposites , the alchemist’ s task is to harmoniz e them, to bring them into unity which culminates in the ‘chymical marriage, ‘ the consummation of his work.

Jun g postulate s that on a psychological level the union of opposite s canno t be achieved by the conscious ego alone –
by reason, analysi s – that separates and divides; nor even by the unconscious alone – that unites ; it needs a third element , the transcendent function. In the same way, for t h e conjunctio n to take place , the alchemis t needed a third factor, a medium , whic h wa s Mercurius (mercury). Thus ther e i s sulphur, the masculine principle , salt, its feminine counterpart, an d mercury , the substanc e that is both liquid a n d solid. By natur e Mercurius is androgenous and partake s of bot h the masculin e and feminine elements ; in himself he unite s the spiritual and physical, the highes t a n d lowest.

Alchem y is full of paradoxe s – as Jung’ s work is – since paradoxe s are the only way remotely to expres s the inexpressible , the phenomen a of the psyche that can be apprehended only through direct experience. 8 1 The mysterious Mercurius is the paradox par excellence. Th e fertile imagination of the alchemists gave countless synonyms to Mercurius, a nd the mos t fantastic descriptions of hi s attributes. Here is o n e example , taken from an alchemical treatise, in which the alchemist asks nature to tell him about her son Mercurius, and she responds :
Know that I have only one such son; he is one of seven, and the first among them; and though he is n o w all things , he wa s at first only one . In him are t he four elements , yet he is not an element. H e is a spirit, ye t h e ha s a body; a man, yet he performs a woman’ s part; a boy, yet he bears a man’ s weapons ;
a beast, ye t he ha s the wings of a bird. H e is poison, ye t he cure s leprosy; life, yet he kills all things ; a King, yet anothe r occupie s his throne ; he flees from the fire, yet fire is taken from him; he is water, ye t doe s not we t the hands ; he is earth, yet is sown ; he is air and lives by water. 8 2 Jun g recognized in the multiple and paradoxical aspect s of Mercurius a reflection of the nature of the self which is a complexio oppositorum, and mus t necessarily be such if it is to symboliz e man’ s totality. To Jung, Mercurius represented n o t onl y the self but the individuation proces s as well, and becaus e of the limitless numbe r of his names , also the collective unconscious. 8 2 T h e first phas e of the alchemical proces s wa s the black stage , nigredo, characterized by confusion, frustration, depression , ‘the dark night of the soul’ of St. John of the Cross , in which nevertheles s all potentialities and the seeds of futur e developmen t are contained. Then as the fire of the alchemica l retort, the psychi c fire, purges the elements , the secon d whit e phase , albedo, is brought about. It is the stage of clarification and intensification of life and consciousness .

T h e final phas e is the red stage , whe n the drama reaches its conclusion: the chemica l proces s of coniunctio, the appearanc e of the philosophers ‘ stone , and at the same time the completion of psychi c synthesi s – the emergenc e of the Self.

Wha t is the philosophers ‘ stone , the lapis? It wa s said tha t it heal s and bestow s immortality. To Jung ‘the lapis is a fabulous entity of cosmi c dimensions which surpasses huma n understanding. ‘ Like ‘man’ s totality, the Self, [it] is b y definition beyond the bounds of knowledge.’ 8 4 Howeve r to the alchemis t Gerhard Dorn, the lapis wa s n o t the completion of the art. The final and highes t conjunction wa s the union of the whol e huma n being with unus mundus, the on e world. Thi s is whe n the individual psych e touche s eternity, the identity of the personal with t he transpersonal. It is the numinous event, the mystery of t he unio mystica, or in the Oriental traditions, the experience s of tao, samadhi, or satori85 Jun g concluded that the phase s of the alchemical procedures , the reconciliation of conflicting opposites into a unity, paralleled the stage s of the individuation process. 8 6 In hi s dreams , as well as thos e of his patients , he could at time s discern a portrayal of the mandala , symbolizing the multiplicity of the phenomena l world within an underlying unity. Th e mandala symbolism represents the psychological equivalent of unus mundus, while its parapsychological equivalent is Jung’ s concept of synchronicity.

Synchronicity

All o f Jung’ s discoveries wer e accompanied by dreams or synchronisti c event s that either pointed the way or gave h im confirmation that he wa s proceeding in the right direction. At the time whe n he wa s diligently drawing mandalas , he produced a painting of a golden castle. The painting wa s particularly intriguing becaus e of its Chines e quality, and he wa s puzzled by it. Shortly afterwards he received from the sinologis t Richard Wilhelm a copy of The Secret of the Golden Flower, an old Chines e alchemical text, whic h marked the beginning of his fascination with alchemy . Th e event of receiving from Richard Wilhelm the Chines e manuscript wa s a synchronisti c one , and furthermor e it wa s connected with a mandala painting of Jung’s .

Thi s striking coincidence , this single event, contained in itself both the mandal a symbolism and the principle of synchronicity, namely, the doubl e expression of unus mundus – psychological and parapsychological. And indeed Jun g felt the powerful effect one experience s in moment s of encounte r with the unus mundus. Thi s event occurred at the time whe n the cycle of his alienation wa s drawing to a close . In hi s autobiography Jung remembers : Tha t wa s the first even t which broke m y isolation. I became awar e of an affinity: I could establish ties with something and some –
one.’ 8 7 Perhaps it is not a mer e coincidence that Jung for the first time announce d to the world his concept of synchronicity in a memoria l addres s to his friend Richard Wilhelm, t he ma n wh o played such a significant part at a crucial period in Jung’ s life.

Synchronicit y is the mos t abstract and mos t elusive of Jung’ s concepts . Jung describes synchronicity as ‘a meaningful coincidence of two or mor e events , wher e something othe r than the probability of chanc e is involved.” 8 8 The connection s of event s are not the result of the principle of caus e an d effect, but of something else which Jung called an acausal connecting principle. The critical factor is the meaning, the subjective experienc e that come s to the person:
event s ar e connected in a meaningful way, that is, event s of t he inne r and oute r world, the invisible and the tangible, t he mind and the physical universe. Thi s coming together at the right momen t can happe n only without the conscious intervention of the ego . Instead it is prepared in the unconsciousnes s of the psyche , and it is as though the psyche had its ow n secret design, irrespective of ego’ s conscious wishes .

Suc h synchronisti c events , of smaller or larger proportions ,
occur to mos t peopl e in daily life, but as with dreams , if w e d o not recogniz e them and pay attention to them, they remai n insignificant.

Jun g give s example s from his practice whe n patients he w a s treating had uncann y coincidence s that put them in touch with a deepe r than conscious level of experience, and convinced the m in a dramatic , unequivocal way of the reality an d limitlessnes s of the unconscious . Of particular interes t is the cas e of the young, well educated woman, who , with he r very one-sided logical mind, wa s stubbornly unresponsiv e to Jung’ s effort s to soften he r rationalism.

O n e day as she wa s telling he r dream of the night before, involving a golden scarab that wa s given to her, a flying insec t persistently knocked at the windo w obviously attempting to ente r the room. Jung opened the window , let t he insec t in and caught it. Th e insect turned out to be a golden-gree n beetle , very muc h resembling the scarab from the dream.

I hande d the beetl e to m y patient with the words ,
‘Her e i s your scarab. ‘ Thi s experienc e punctured the desired hol e in he r rationalism and broke the ice of he r intellectual resistance. Th e treatment could no w be continued with satisfactory results. 8 9 In developing hi s concept of synchronicity, Jung related it to the discoveries of moder n theoretical physics , from whic h w e ha d learned that causality and prediction are n o longe r valid in the microphysical world. 9 0 H e concluded tha t ther e is a commo n background between microphysic s a n d hi s depth psychology. 9 1 At the same time Jung went bac k to ancient Chines e philosophy and recognized a correspondenc e betwee n synchronicity and the ineffable idea of tao. In fact it wa s the / Ching, the Chines e Book of Changes, an d its metho d with which Jun g had personal experienc e that wa s to him a major inspiration in developing t he concept of synchronicity. Th e two seemingly opposite frameworks , the rational scientific and the intuitive philosophical, ar e by n o mean s contradictory. In his book, The Tao of Physics, Fritjof Capra addresse s himself to this very point, and argue s that there are close parallels between basi c concept s of moder n physic s and Eastern mystical teachings . Th e findings of theoretical physic s reveal a univers e that is a harmonious , unified process , a dynami c we b of interrelated elements . Tni s is precisely the fundamental thought in Buddhis t and Taois t philosophies . An d to Jung synchronisti c event s point to ‘a profound harmony between all forms of existence.’ 9 2 Whe n experienced as such, it be –
come s a tremendousl y powerful occurrenc e that gives the individual a sens e o f transcending time and space.

3 Methods In Jung’S Psychology And Tibetan Buddhism

The Cure Of Souls

T h e ‘cur e of souls, ‘ Jung says in his Memories, Dreams, Reflections, is hi s task. 9 3 Unlike mos t conventional psychotherapie s whos e goal s are basically personality adjustment a n d cur e of symptoms , and to which end manipulative therapeuti c technique s are applied, Jung’ s psychotherapy aims at the healing of the soul, the approach to the numinous .

T h e goal is no t only the healing of pathology, but above all, t he fulfillment of individual wholenes s or self-realization.

Ther e is hidden in the depth of each huma n being a seed of all futur e development, that in its ultimate meaning is a seed of divinity, and the profound task of Jung’ s psychotherapy is to help that seed unfold and matur e to its fullest potential. Wha t are the methods that Jung developed to achiev e thi s goal ? Jung tells us that in the natural proces s of individuation he found a model, and a guiding principle for hi s method of treatment. 9 4 The process of individuation is essentially an unconscious , autonomous process, in which the psyche in its natural and spontanous urge for wholenes s is striving to harmoniz e its conscious and unconscious contents . Thus the therapist, says Jung, ‘mus t follow nature a s a guide, ‘ and his or he r intervention is ‘less a question of treatment than of developing the creative possibilities latent in the patient himself.’ 9 5 Jun g observed that thos e of his patient s wh o succeeded in setting themselve s free from the bondage of their life problem s an d achieved highe r levels of psychic developmen t an d integration, in essenc e did nothing but simply allow things to happen. The y allowed their unconscious to spea k to the m in silence, and they listened to its message s patiently and gave them the full and mos t serious attention.

In othe r words , they established a conscious relationship with their unconscious processes .

T h e art of letting things happen, action through inaction, letting go of oneself as told by Meister Eckhart, becam e for m e the key that opens the doo r to the way . W e mus t be able to let things happe n in the psyche . For us , this is an art of whic h mos t peopl e kno w nothing. Consciousnes s is forever interfering, helping, correcting, and ne –
gating, neve r leaving the psychi c proces s to grow in peace. 9 6 Whe n the psychi c proces s is allowed to grow in peace, t he unconscious fertilizes the consciousness , and conscious –
nes s illuminates the unconscious ; the interfusion and union of the tw o opposite s result in increased awarenes s and a broadenin g of personality. Jung postulates that this can be bes t accomplished whe n the proces s is not regulated from t he outside an d the therapis t doe s not interfere with the operation of nature. As the wider personality is being created, consciousnes s increases , become s transformed and a new cente r of personality emerge s – the Self – while ego tendencie s are diminished. Th e ne w center, like a magnet, attract s to it all that genuinely and authentically belong to t he uniquenes s of personality. The integrity and unity of t he individual gradually establishes itself out of its original ground plan, and all that is unessential, superfluous, superimposed , drops away . Th e ego that has developed in respons e to the pressure s and dictates of the outer world, and t he cultural environment, at this point bow s and gives way to the pressure s and urge s of the individual’s inner world, hi s inne r being, his soul, the Self. Thus the ego has been sacrificed to the Self; the mundan e existence has acquired a meaning , the individual has come in touch with the numinous . Hi s initial unconscious condition has been transformed into highe r consciousness , and the rounding of personality, whos e symbol is the mandala , has been accomplished.

H o w the harmonizing of conscious and unconscious content s happens , no on e knows , for it is an irrational life process . In Jung’ s psychotherapy there are no fixed methods of treatment; the methods naturally develop as the work progresses , an d in respons e to the needs of the particular individual. Every individual is unique and unpredictable, a n d therefor e Jung enjoins therapists to free themselve s from all preconception s and theoretical assumptions , and abando n all methods and techniques. 9 7 Jung tells us he is deliberately unsystematic , and only individual understanding is the method, so to speak. ‘We need a different languag e for every patient.’ 9 8 However, tw o basi c methods wer e consistently used b y Jun g in hi s practice : work with dreams and active imagination . Whil e dream interpretation has a long history going far back into antiquity, active imagination is t he original produc t of Jung’ s artwork. Jung views the proces s of active imagination as equivalent to the alchemical operation. In essenc e it involves an ongoing dialogue be –
tween two opposites , that is, consciousness and the unconscious , in the course of which all aspects of one’ s being are gradually integrated. It is the work of reconciliation and union of opposite s leading to psychological transformation.

Ther e are several steps in the process . Initially the task is to induc e a calm state of mind, free from thoughts , and merel y to observe in a neutral way, without judgment, just to behold the spontaneous emergenc e and unfoldment of unconsciou s contents , fragment s of fantasy. Thi s part is very similar to basi c meditation practices. The experience is then recorded eithe r in a written form, or given some othe r tangible shape , such as a drawing, a painting, a sculpture , a dance , or any othe r variety of symboli c expres – sions. 9 9 In the next stage, the conscious mind begins to participate actively and deliberately in a confrontation with t he unconscious . The meaning of the unconscious produc t a n d its messag e has to be understood and reconciled with t he position and demand s of the conscious mind. As Jung states :
It is exactly as if a dialogue wer e taking place betwee n two huma n beings with equal rights, each of who m give s the other credit for a valid argumen t and consider s it worthwhil e to modify t he conflicting standpoint s by means of thorough comparison and discussion or else to distinguish the m clearly from on e another. 1 0 0 Finally, onc e the eg o and the unconscious have come to terms with each othe r and on e no w ha s the capacity to live consciously, an ethical attitude and obligation has to follow:
o n e n o longe r can conduc t one’ s life as though unawar e of t he hidden workings of the unconscious. 1 0 1 It mus t be stressed that the principles of Jung’ s psychology are no t applied as a metho d of medical treatment but rather of self-education. Psychotherapy, says Jung,
…transcends its medical origins and ceases to be merely a metho d for treating the sick. It no w treats t he healthy or such as have a moral right to psychic health, whos e sicknes s is at mos t the suffering that torment s us all. For this reason, analytical psychology can claim to serve the commo n weal…. 1 0 2 In hi s psychotherapy Jung aims to bring about in his patient s a state of fluidity in which they experience change a n d growth without being attached to any fixed condition.

At the sam e time he endeavor s to arous e in them a sens e of their suprapersona l connections , to enlarge their capacities of awarenes s beyond personal consciousness. 1 0 3 Thi s is particularly important for modern ma n whos e rational attitude has thwarted and repressed the spiritual dimension of life. Jun g stresse s that the spiritual or religious realm of experienc e doe s not refer to any creed, dogma , or meta –
physical category but is a fundamenta l psychi c function of tremendou s significance. 1 0 4 H e recognizes that there is no persona l healing without regaining a religious outlook on life. 1 0 5 O f central importanc e in therapy is the role of the psychotherapist, an d the close rapport between the latter and the patient. Therap y to Jun g is a dialectical proces s in which t w o psychi c realities confront each other, and both mus t be affected an d changed in the encounter. 1 0 6 The therapist, no les s than the patient, cannot be immume from the experienc e if therapy is to b e effective. Concept s are instrument s of protection from experience, thanks to which the therapist c an maintain a convenient distance, and besides , there is n o obligation to concepts . But, as Jung says , ‘the spirit doe s n o t dwell in concepts/ 1 0 7 Therapist s equally should not shield themselve s behin d the screen of professional authority , for b y thi s attitude they deprive themselves of importan t information gained through the channel of their unconscious. 1 0 8 At the sam e time , Jung is very eager to allow hi s patient s to becom e psychologically mature , selfreliant an d independen t from the therapist. Like the alchemist’ s apprentice , patient s can learn ‘all the tricks of t he laboratory ‘ but ultimately mus t engage in the opus themselve s for ‘nobod y else can do it for [them]’ 1 0 9 So , the endles s proces s of individuation has to go on long after forma l therapy ha s ended . An d speaking from the standpoin t of a psychotherapist, Jun g tells us the encounter s with t he man y kinds of peopl e he me t in hi s therapeuti c work constituted for hi m invaluabl e learning experiences , and t h e fines t an d mos t significant interactions in hi s life. 1 1 0 It is important to underline that individuation leads not onl y to a widening of personality, but also to a broadening of collective relationships . Contrary to the belief of some ,
individuation is not tantamount to isolation and abdication o f social an d ethical responsibilities ; rather, personal consciousnes s an d collective awarenes s are enhanced concurrently in a natural, spontaneous progression. The proces s o f individuation, says Jung,
…brings to birth a consciousnes s of huma n communit y precisely becaus e it make s us awar e of the unconscious , which unite s and is commo n to all mankind . Individuation is an at-one-ment with oneself and at the same time with humanity, since oneself is a part of humanity. 1 1 1 Her e w e mee t on the same ground the Buddhis t idea of compassion, which is but the other aspect of wisdom:
wisdo m an d compassion are the two sides of the same coin, o n e representing personal and the other transpersonal consciousness , and both equally indispensable for the attainment o f enlightenment.

Finally, it mus t b e noted that Jung’ s work is of such timeless nature and limitless proportion that it is impossible, eve n remotely, to conve y its full flavor and meaning, and its potential impac t on an individual psyche . Furthermore , his work , along with hi s life, ha s gone through successive stage s of unfolding an d doe s not easily reveal itself to casual study or through focus on only one aspec t of it, and least of all b y analyzing his methods . It asks to b e approached in its totality, an d even then it is no easy task to understand it.

Her e is an interesting commen t on this issue, by one of Jung’ s disciples , Ira Progoff:
…I ha d observed…tha t whereve r his [Jung’s ]
theorie s and practice wer e taught as a specifically Jungian psychology, the structure of thought with its system of terms and concept s wa s emphasized.

I recognized that one reason for this wa s that at least the terms wer e teachable wherea s the powerful direct awareness which Jung had reached wa s n ot teachable…. 1 1 2 Progoff, in the cours e of hi s conversation with Jung, told h i m about thes e thoughts . After a lengthy discussion of the issue , Progoff still restless , posed the following question to Jung :
‘Suppose, ‘ I asked him, ‘that you wer e free from all the problems involved in making an intellectually valid formulation of your methods ; suppos e that y ou could state it without regard to ho w other s would misunderstand or misus e it. Suppos e that y ou could state it in a wa y that would fit your ow n truest feelings of it, then wha t would it be?. . .’Ach’,
he said.. . ‘It would b e too funny. It would be a Zen touch.’ 1 1 3 Progoff interpret s Jung’ s reference to a Zen touch as meanin g tha t hi s wor k has to b e cut to the essentials , and tha t it ha s to b e achieved beyond rationality. 1 1 4 Personally, I believe that Jung’ s reference to Zen, in all its stark simplicity, reveal s mor e strikingly than any other elaborat e comment s wha t hi s dynami c method is all about.

Emancipation From Suffering

Jus t as the ‘cur e of souls ‘ wa s Jung’ s task and role, suffering a n d emancipation from suffering, or liberation, is the ultimat e goal of Buddhism. Even before the emergenc e of Buddhism , thi s wa s the essential problem of Indian philos –
ophy , but it wa s the method that became the main and unique contribution of Buddhism to Indian philosophy.

T h e Buddh a recognized, through his ow n experience, and repeatedly stressed, that philosophical and metaphysical speculations and abstrac t thinking alone have no impac t on t h e life of the individual. Onl y knowledge gained through direc t experienc e ha s life-giving value. For this reason Buddh a maintained the ‘nobl e silence’ whe n asked meta –
physical questions o n the nature of the Absolute, ‘the eternal truths. ‘ Instead he pointed out the wa y and insisted that eac h on e of us individually mus t find the solutions to our fundamenta l existential problems , not through our intellect a n d logical thinking, but through development of a higher consciousness , bodhi: the Absolute , the Infinite, the numinous , is no t to b e conceptualized but realized within one’ s self. Buddha’ s visions and insights , the transformation of h i s ow n consciousnes s in the cours e of meditation unde r t he bodhi tree, could not be conveyed with words . H e could onl y sho w the way, the method. In its very essenc e the way is simple , as it is no t to b e looked for in hidden, faraway places , in book s or sacred scriptures , but in the very depth o f one’ s ow n self. 1 1 5 Thi s is no different than the work of the alchemist’ s apprentice , or of Jung’ s patient.

Whe n the transformation of consciousnes s is realized within the depth of the individual’ s psyche , then the meta –
physica l cease s to b e metaphysical, and is experienced as intuitive, absolut e knowledg e – illumination.

A s Lam a Govinda states :
…wha t make s ma n blessed is not belief (in the sens e of the acceptanc e of a definite dogma), but t he becomin g conscious of reality, which latter is metaphysic s to us only for as long as w e have not experienced it… vie wed from without (as a system) Buddhis m is metaphysics ; viewed from within (as a form of reality) it is empiricism. In so far as ‘the metaphysical’ is disclosed upon the path of inne r experience , it wa s not rejected by the Buddha , it w a s only rejected whe n it wa s thought out upo n t he path of speculation. Metaphysic s is an entirely relative concept, whos e boundarie s depend upon the respective plane of experience , upon the respective form and extent of consciousness . Buddha overcam e metaphysic s and its problems , not by merel y ignoring them, but in an absolute positive manner, in that, through training and extension of consciousnes s h e pushed back the boundary lines of the latter, so that the metaphysical became the empirical. 1 1 6 Her e I a m reminded of Jung’ s statement s that his work is base d on empirical facts, and on the othe r hand, the ac –
cusation b y som e – wh o misread his work, or rather lacked t he experienc e to understand the reality of it – that he wa s b ut a fuzzy mystic . Muc h of hi s work which wa s considered
‘mystical’ ha s been validated by discoveries of modern science , and thus the metaphysical has become empirical.

Ther e are man y ways , man y paths , leading to liberation, t he goal of all school s of Buddhism. In its bare essenc e any path is tantamount to a radical transformation of conscious –
ness , a symboli c death and rebirth from a profane to a spiritual mod e of being. (Or, in terms of Jung’ s psychology, it would b e the sacrifice of the ego for the emergenc e of the Self.)
In orde r to respond to the different needs and temperament s of different invididual s many methods have been developed. In Tantric Buddhism especially, there is a multitude of mode s and techniques . They are all designed to affec t the thre e aspect s of a huma n being: body, speech, a n d mind.

T h e central method, and the one that wa s used by Buddha himself in hi s transformation process , is meditation. In the Tantri c path, or Vajrayana , in the beginning, as preliminary practices , the various methods of meditation are followed to calm, tame and discipline the mind, achieve one-pointed concentration, cultivate mindfulnes s and awareness . On thi s foundation a mor e comple x method is practiced which is characteristi c of the Vajrayana vehicle, namely visualization. In the act of visualization meditator s construct menta l images , of various degree s of complexity, representing peaceful, beautiful and wrathful, terrifying Tantric deitie s with who m they identify and wh o guide them through the process .

Each deity corresponds to a vital force within the depth of t he individual, and by uniting with various deities, the meditator make s contact with those forces – positive or negative – and utilizes or rather transmutes them, to achieve highe r states of consciousness . The method is based on assumptions that are irrational and can only be grasped in the w a y one can understand the irrational processess of life mentioned earlier in discussing Jung’ s method of psychotherapy.

Meditator s are given a deity, chosen according to their specifi c needs and spiritual capacities. The y are instructed to devot e their fullest attention to the form of the deity that the y ar e to create in their mind. All the minut e details of the image , in all its complexity and color, are visualized to the point that it become s jus t as real as the practitioners themselves . Indeed they not only contemplat e the deity, they identify themselve s as the deity. For a momen t they have bee n transfigured into the divinity: the archetypal essenc e of it ha s been transferred into them. During that time of identification with the deity they generat e the so-called
‘divine pride, ‘ pride that on e is Buddha. 1 1 7 T h e cor e of visualization consist s in this union with the deity. It is a dynami c proces s in which the meditators ‘ ego, their ordinary consciousness , is abandoned and substituted with the highe r consciousnes s of the deity. On e could say, to us e Jung’ s language , that the individual’ s ego has been sacrificed for the Self.

T h e proces s of visualization is not a matter or repressing t he irrepressible part s of our psyche , the archetypal forms that unit e us with all of humanity of all times , but rather to mak e contac t with them and gradually transform them so as to achieve a highe r state of consciousness . The various deitie s are symbol s of the forces , positive and negative, goo d and evil, that wag e a battle in our psyche . Non e of thes e forces , thes e energies , is lost: each is harnessed and transmuted into pur e awareness , pure spiritual essence .

O r, to us e the alchemical language , lead is transformed into gold.

Le t us look at the description of one of the deities:
Mahavajrabhairava mus t have a body of very deep blue colour, nine faces , thirty-four arms and sixteen feet. Th e legs on the left side are advanced a n d thos e on the right drawn back. H e is able to swallow the thre e worlds . H e sneer s and roars.

Hi s tongue is arched. H e gnashe s his teeth and his eyebrow s are wrinkled. Hi s eye s and his eyebrow s flame like the cosmi c fire at the time of t he destruction of the universe . Hi s hair is yellow a n d stands on end . H e menace s the God s of the material and the non-material spheres. He frightens eve n the terrifying deities . H e roars out the word p’ain with a voice like the rumbl e of thunder. H e devour s flesh, marro w and huma n fat and drinks blood. H e is crowned with five awe-inspiring skulls a nd is adorned with a garland made of fifteen freshly severed heads . Hi s sacrificial cord is a black serpent. Th e ornament s in hi s ear s etc. are of huma n bones . Hi s belly is huge , hi s body naked and his peni s erect. Hi s eyebrows , eyelids, beard and body hair flame like the cosmi c fire at the end of the ages . Hi s middl e face is that of a buffalo. It is horne d an d expresse s violent anger. Abov e it, and betwee n the horns , project s a yellow face. 1 1 8 A s a contrast, let us contemplat e the following image:
O n the dis c of the autum n moon, clear and pure, y o u plac e a seed syllable. Th e cool blue rays of the seed syllable emanat e immens e cooling compassion that radiates beyond the limits of sky or space. It fulfills the needs and desires of sentient beings ,
bringing basi c warmth so that confusions may be clarified. The n from the seed syllable you create a Mahavairocana Buddha , whit e in color, with the features of an aristocrat – an eight-year-old child with a beautiful, innocent, pure, powerful, royal gaze . H e is dressed in the costume of a medieval kin g of India . H e wear s a glittering gold crown inlaid with wish-fulfilling jewels. Part of his long black hair floats over his shoulders and back; the rest is made into a topknot surmounted by a glittering blue diamond. H e is seated crosslegged on the lunar disc with his hands in the meditation mudra holding a vajra carved from pure white crystal. 1 1 9 A n d no w let us contemplat e a visualization, suggested b y a contemporar y Tantri c teacher, for the benefit of those devoted to Jesus Christ. It is a purification practice of body, speec h an d mind.

Sit, or knee l if you like, in a comfortable position, relaxed but with your back straight. In your mind’ s eye , visualize Jesus befor e you. Hi s face ha s a tranquil, peaceful and loving expression. A picture of the resurrected Chris t or of Jesus teaching ma y b e used as a mode l for this visualization.

The n visualize from the crown of hi s head much radiant, whit e light coming to your ow n crown.

Thi s whit e light is in the nature of blissful energy a n d as it enter s your body it purifies the physical contamination, or sin, accumulated ove r countles s lifetimes . Thi s blissful, whit e energy purifies all disease s of the body , including cancers , and activate s an d renew s the functioning of your entire nervous system.

In a similar manner, a red light is visualized, radiating forth from Jesus ‘ throat and entering your own , completely pervading your vocal centre with the sensation of bliss . If you have any difficulties with your speech, always telling lies, being uncontrolled in wha t you say, engaging in slander, using harsh language or the like – this blissful red energ y purifies you of all thes e negativities. As a result you discover the divine qualities of speech.

The n from Jesus ‘ heart infinite radiant blue light come s to sink into your heart, purifying your mind of all its wrong conceptions . Your selfish and petty ego , whic h is like the chief or president of the delusions , and the three poisons of greed, hatred a nd ignorance , which are like the ego’ s ministers , a r e all purified in thi s blissful, blue radiance. Th e indecisiv e mind , whic h is specially doubtful and caugh t betwee n ‘mayb e this ‘ and ‘maybe that,’ is clarified. Also purified is the narrow mind, which canno t se e totality becaus e its focus is too tight. As the light energy fills your mind, your heart becomes like the blue sky, embracing universal reality and all o f space. 1 2 0 With persistent practice, and as highe r stages of consciousnes s develop, the mentally created deities assume a dynami c reality capabl e of affecting the meditator in a.

powerful way . In terms of Jung’ s psychology thes e deities in the meditator’ s mind becom e incarnated archetypes . As to their ‘reality’ and the reason for their efficacy, w e can again turn to Jun g and hi s definition of ‘illusion.’
By wha t criterion do w e judge something to be an illusion? Doe s anything exist for the psyche that w e are entitled to call illusion? Wha t w e are pleased to call illusion ma y be for the psyche an extremely important life-factor, something as indispensable as oxyge n for the body – a psychi c actuality of overwhelmin g significance. Presumably the psych e doe s not trouble itself about our categories of reality; for it, everything that works is real….Nothing is mor e probable than that wha t w e call illusion is very real for the psyche – for this reason w e canno t take psychi c reality to be commensurabl e with conscious reality. 1 2 1 O f course , it should be kept in mind that in terms of Buddhis t philosophy this statement would b e true on the relative level of reality only. O n the ultimate level of reality everything is intrinsically void.

In the Tantri c sadhanas (spiritual exercises ) the mental activity o f meditation is accompanied by mantras and mudras in which speech and body take part.

Mantra s are sacred sounds , auditory symbols , that have n o concret e meaning , but like the sound and rhythm of musi c an d poetry hav e the powe r of evoking profound feelings an d states of consciousnes s that transcend thought a n d ordinar y speech. T o the initiated the mantra speaks in a very direct, immediat e wa y and has the capacity to call forth the dorman t forces within them. To other s it remains a secret. Th e mer e recitation of a mantr a without adequat e preparation and the prope r menta l attitude is useless , for t he soun d of the mantr a is not merely physical but above all is spiritual. It ha s to b e produced by the mind and heard by t he heart. 1 2 2 Mudra s ar e symboli c posture s and gesture s in which hand s an d each finger participate in a mos t refined, elegant a n d expressive manner, reminiscent of the movement s of Balines e dancers . The y are physical, outward expressions of inne r state s of bein g and, like the mantra s whe n used in t he prope r context, ar e an aid to meditation, helping to incite highe r states of consciousness . Whe n all three aspects of one’ s being – body, speech, and mind – are simultaneously involved an d harmoniously co-ordinated – in the performanc e of mudras , recitation of mantras , and deep meditation – primeval, universal forces are aroused, and the effect is thunderous . On e enter s anothe r reality.

Ritual s an d ceremonie s play a significant role in Tantric practice . Prostrations , offerings of incens e and flowers ,
chanting , puja (ritual worship), initiation rites, all of them hav e to b e regarded as forms of meditation and understood for their symboli c meaning . To have their full effect, they hav e to b e approached with a correct menta l attitude and wit h reverence .

A typical ceremon y ha s all the dramati c qualities of incantatio n an d magic : it i s a feast for all the sense s and it strike s at the deepes t level s of one’ s being. Ther e is the blast of the horn s and Tibetan long trumpets , the rattle of the clapper-drums , the sound of the bells , the chanting, recitation of mantra s and sacred texts , the praye r flags, the colorful robe s o f the lama s whos e postures , gestures , and facial expressions often mirror those of the deities in the surrounding thangkas (sacred images); the fragrance of incense, flowers , ceremonia l utensils , bowl s with sanctified water, tea, fruit and othe r delicacies. It is a spectacle and experience tha t canno t b e described, but neither can it ever be forgotten.

The Spiritual Friend And The Analyst

Sinc e liberation canno t b e attained by wa y of books or abstrac t knowledg e but only through experience, the need for a huma n guru, or spiritual teacher, is of tremendous importance . Onl y with the help and guidanc e of anothe r huma n being can one’ s consciousnes s be awakened and real progres s made . But this othe r huma n being mus t be a teache r wh o is qualified and wh o him or herself is far along t he path. Hi s conduct, his knowledge , the clarity of his mind , hi s wisdo m an d compassion mus t be such that he c an serve not only as a teacher, but as a living exampl e of t h e enlightened attitude. Guru s cannot transfer their wisdo m to the disciples , but their words , which resonate beyon d the meanin g of the ordinary words , can touch and mov e the disciples whe n they are ready for the teaching. Whe n that happen s it is as if a key ha s opened the door of perception in the innermos t being of the disciples, and gradually their horizons are widened. It feels literally that consciousness , the light, is expanding at each contac t with t he guru. Th e huma n guru, being the mode l of a complet e person , is but the archetypal symbol of the Suprem e Guru, or the principle of Buddhahood, and so the proces s goe s on in th e mind s of the disciple s till the image of the guru has bee n integrated within themselves . Th e disciple realizes tha t the teache r is not outside but inside his psyche , and is non e othe r than his ow n Self.

T h e function of gurus , wh o are sometime s also called spiritual friends , ha s man y aspects . Let us look at the imaginative text of the eleventh century Tibetan teacher and philosophe r Gampopa , describing the role of spiritual friends .

T h e similes are that spiritual friends are like a guide whe n w e travel in unknow n territory, an escort whe n w e pas s through dangerous regions a n d a ferryman whe n w e cros s a great river.

A s to the first, whe n w e travel guideles s in an unknow n territory ther e is the dange r of going astray and getting lost. But if w e go with a guide then ther e is no such danger, and without missing a single step w e reach the desired place… .

In the second simile dangerous regions are haunted by thieve s and robbers , wild beast s and othe r noxious animals . Whe n w e go there without an escort, ther e is a dange r of losing our body, life o r property; but whe n w e have a strong escort we reach the desired place without a loss… .

Finally in the third simile whe n w e cros s the great river, if w e have boarded a boat without a boatman , w e are either drowned or carried away b y the current and do not reach the other shore ;
b ut if ther e is a boatman w e land safely by his efforts. 1 2 3 Jun g kne w well of the danger s of the ‘wild beast s and othe r noxious animals, ‘ and the terror whe n plunging into t he dark regions of one’ s unconscious , as he experimented with himself. An d so did the alchemist s before him. They wer e also fully awar e of the potential psychi c explosion inheren t in their opus. N o doubt, both the alchemist s and Jun g would b e in full agreement with the warnings of the Tibetan teacher.

Following in the footsteps of Shakyamuni Buddha neve r to impos e hi s teachings on others , it is part of the Tibetan tradition that instruction should b e given only in respons e to a sincer e reques t and serious intent. Tibetan teacher s believe that the very act of seeking and requesting help create s the prope r energ y that is conducive to receiving it, a n d listening not only with ear s but with the heart as well. 1 2 4 T h e analys t plays essentially the same role as the spiritua l friend; ye t ther e is an important distinction. As stated earlier, Jun g postulate s that in the course of psychologica l treatment the therapis t mus t b e equally affected b y the therapeuti c encounter. Thi s ma y become an experienc e of renewa l for the therapist, but on the other han d ma y also result in psychological contamination, threatenin g the therapist’ s ow n emotiona l balance. The gur u b y contrast, on e i s told, having attained high spiritual realization i s immun e to such contamination and cannot b e affected b y hi s students ‘ negativities . In fact some meditatio n practice s in Tibetan Buddhism include a menta l offering to the guru consisting of all object s of one’ s gree d an d hatred, in brief, all negativities . At the same tim e I hav e bee n told b y the Lama s that the response s of their student s – and particularly the recognition that they helpe d clea r confusio n and reduc e suffering – do affect the m an d add to the stor e of their energies .

4 Archetypal Symbols – Tantra And Jung

AS DISCUSSED IN the previous chapter, visualization is one of the main meditation methods in the Vajrayana. The different type s of deities visualized in personified form are expressed outwardly in Tantric iconography, while inwardly they correspond to different psychological states. By identifying with the various deities of the Tibetan Buddhist pantheon t he profane consciousnes s is transcended into the know –
ledg e of the holy, an d thus image s become symbol s of transformation. Th e anthropomorphi c Tantric images are regarded a s archetypes , ye t become real to the meditator.

According to Jung, archetype s come to life whe n they are meaningful to an individual. 1 2 6 Like all powerful symbols ,
Tantri c image s whe n infused with emotion, gain numinos –
ity an d supply meditator s with energy that carry them a step forward into anothe r psychological realm – the trans –
personal, spiritua l Wha t is the role of image s in the practice of Buddhism whos e philosophical and metaphysical foundations are based o n the concept of emptiness ?

In the words of Lama Govinda :
T h e abstractnes s of philosophical concept s and conclusions require s to be constantly corrected by direct experience , by the practice of meditation a n d the contingencie s of daily life. Th e anthropomorphi c element in the Vajrayana is therefore not born from a lack of intellectual understanding (as in the cas e of primitive man), but, on the contrary, from the conscious desire to penetrate from a mere –
ly intellectual an d theoretical attitude to the direct awarenes s of reality. Thi s cannot b e achieved through building up convictions , ideals , and aims based o n reasoning, but only through conscious penetration of thos e layer s of our mind which canno t b e reached or influenced by logical argument s an d discursive thought.

Suc h penetration and transformation is only pos –
sible through the compelling power of inner vision, whos e primordial image s or ‘archetypes ‘ are the formative principles of our mind. Like seeds they sink into the fertile soil of our subconsciousnes s in orde r to germinate , to gro w and to unfold their potentialities….

T h e subjectivity of inne r vision doe s not diminish its reality-value. Suc h visions are not hallucinations , becaus e their reality is that of the huma n psyche . The y are symbols , in which the highes t knowledg e and the nobles t endeavour of the huma n mind are embodied. Their visualization is the creative proces s of spiritual projection, through which inne r experienc e is translated into visibl e form, comparabl e to the creative act of an artist, whos e subjective idea, emotion, or vision, is transformed into an objective work of art, which n o w take s on a reality of its own, independent of its creator. 1 2 7 Similarly Jun g tells us that archetype s initially are empty forms but contain the possibility of certain perception and action, an d whe n activated they become a powerful force in t he life an d behavior of an individual. 1 2 8 Indeed, the archetype ma y take an autonomou s reality of its ow n and take control ove r the entire personality. Th e vision ma y lead to artistic creations or scientific discoveries , like the famous cas e o f Kekule’ s discovery of the benzene ring.129 But the visions can also lead to insanity if they are not integrated into consciousness . Th e dividing line between the two roads is frequently very thin.

Tibetan Buddhists , as well as Jung, are aware of the danger s involved, and therefore urge that proper safeguards b e taken. Tantric visualization, or the somewha t comparable Jung’ s active imagination technique, both require guidance of a qualified teacher, or analyst. Furthermore , in Vajrayana practice every visualization is preceded and terminated by meditation o n emptines s and dissolution of images which act s a s a protection agains t continued identification with t he symbols : the meditator is made awar e that the deities a r e product s of imagination.

O n e of the mos t important and in Tibet the mos t popular deit y i s Tara . Sh e is the feminin e aspec t of the Buddha .

In Tibe t sh e is revered as the mothe r of all Buddhas .

Tara , in he r essence , symbolize s the totally developed wis –
d o m that transcends reason. Sh e is the Buddha of enlightene d activity, the liberator who , by releasing one from the bondag e of egocentri c passions , leads from the shore s of profane worldly involvement (samsara) to the other shore of illumination (nirvana). Tara appears in a variety of aspects:
t he green Tara, red Tara , white Tara, etc. , twenty-one of them, and each corresponding to slightly different archetypal image s in the psyche . In Jungian terminology she represents t he Mothe r archetype . However, she is the image of the mothe r wh o ha s integrated in herself all the opposites ,
positiv e an d negative . Thu s to Eric Newman n (a disciple of Jung) , Tar a symbolize s the highes t form, the culmination of th e feminin e archetype . Sh e is ‘the Great Goddes s who ,
in th e totality of he r unfolding, fills the world from it s lowes t elementar y phas e to its supreme spiritual transformation.’ 1 3 0 Beside s peaceful and wrathful deities, anothe r category o f “beings ” plays an important role in Tibetan Buddhism.

The y ar e the so-called dakinis wh o have divine or demoni c qualities , an d can represent the huma n inspirational impulse . The y ar e femal e embodiment s of knowledge and magi c powers , and are described as ‘genii of meditation a n d spiritual helpers, ‘ capabl e of awakening the dormant force s hidden in the darknes s of the unconscious .

T h e wor d dakini, or in Tibetan , khadoma, means “space “
a n d “ether, ” referring to that whic h make s movemen t pos –
sible .

13 1 On e get s the feeling of the fluid natur e of a dakini;
s h e move s the psyche and causes it to liquidify all that is rigid a n d concrete , encapsulated in conceptual thought s and dogmas , an y fixed formulation. In that sens e she symbolizes t he principle of motion and reflects the dynami c forces that are the sam e in the cosmos as in the psyche of the individual.

T h e dakini of the highes t rank is Vajra Yogini. Sh e is the divine figure of the inspiring mus e wh o ‘redeems the treasure s of aeon s of experience , whic h lie dormant in the subconscious , an d raise s the m into the realm of highe r consciousness , beyon d that of our intellect.’ 1 3 2 Tibetan Buddhist s say that Vajra Yogini has always existed deep within ourselves , in our unconscious , but is suffocated by t he ego . Whe n the concept of the ego is pierced w e allow Vajr a Yogini to appear. (Whe n I think of Vajra Yogini I am alway s reminded of the Sleeping Beauty.)
In the contex t of Jung’ s psychology, Vajra Yogini would b e a primordial image , and as such can act as a mediator,
‘proving its redeeming power, a powe r it ha s always pos –
sessed-in various religions.’ 1 3 3 Vajr a Yogini in Tibetan iconography is depicted with a curious expression that is simultaneously loving and smiling, but also wrathful, thus revealing the essential ambivalenc e of ever y archetype .

T h e Tantri c symbol of dakini has been sometime s compare d in the Wes t with Jung’ s concept of on e of the major archetypes , namely, the anima. 1 3 4 The latter is usually referr ed to as the femal e aspec t of the mal e psyche . The anima appear s in man y different forms and ha s both benevolent a n d demoni c aspects . Sh e can be a guide and mediator, leading a ma n to his transformation – or to his doom.

B ut the notion of anima is much mor e complex. First of all, anim a doe s not apply exclusively to a man’ s psyche: as an archetypa l figure she can function in the psyche of either gender. In the male-oriented Western world, the concept of anima , as the feminine counterpart of the masculine psyche, a n d the prope r integration of the two aspects , is crucial to t h e psychologica l balanc e of the individual and the culture.

In the Eastern world, on the othe r hand, the feminine quality , the yin as well as the yang, the masculine quality, t he goddes s as well as the god, have bee n integral parts of t he culture . Ther e could b e no god without a goddess ; one i s unthinkabl e without the other. Th e mos t prevalent imag e in Tantri c iconograph y is the symbo l of yab-yum, t h e go d an d goddess , fathe r and mother, in ecstatic embrace , symbolizin g the perfec t union of the masculine a n d feminin e elements , the unio n of opposite s which is t h e fundamenta l inne r experience .

Jun g is right whe n he says that the concept of anima as he stated it is lacking in the Eastern view. 1 3 4 It should be added , that it is the notion of anima as he formulated it in hi s earlier writings , and as it is mos t commonly understood. In the Eas t that concept would be superfluous .

Anima , however, can be the bridge to the Self. As such, she h a s a definite correspondenc e to the dakini, the ethereal being wh o is both the essenc e and the carrier of wisdom. In tha t sens e dakinis, an d actually all Tantri c deities , peaceful a n d wrathful, divine and demonic , can be looked at as messenger s and personifications of supreme wisdom, and therefor e they function as catalysts in the proces s of integration. Or, to put it differently, they are numinous personalities , embodiment s of archetypes , expressing different attributes of the Self.

A dakini ma y at time s have a correspondenc e to the arche –
type of the anima, but may also just as well be the equivalent of the archetype of the ‘wise old man ‘ wh o represent s superio r insight. An d jus t as the image of Philemon, the
‘wise old man ‘ appeared to Jung and seemed quite real to him , similarly a deity appear s real to the meditator. The differenc e is, however, that the dakini, or deity, is not a spontaneous appearance , as Jung’ s vision of Philemon was .

It is instead a deity that the guru bestows on the student during initiation to facilitate his or he r progress , and it is chose n in accordance with the individual’s specific needs, characteristics and capacities . Such a deity is called yidam, a n d become s the student’ s guardian and mentor – the ‘wise o ld man. ‘ It ha s been said that a dakini ‘provides hidden intimations from deepe r layer s of one’ s being.’ 1 3 6 Her e the dakini would reflect the quality of the anima , which Jung describe s as a personification of the unconscious, 1 3 7 and havin g the connective qualities of Eros. 1 3 8 B ut onc e again, it should b e emphasized that all these anthropomorphi c image s of the Tantric pantheon – deities, dakinis, yidams – are not identified as external beings , but a r e non e othe r than the reflections of the individual’s mind, a n d are revealed in inward experiences . Therefore, the various archetypal figures can appear in one form or another at different time s and unde r different circumstances . The goa l is to mak e contac t with thes e psychi c realities and bring the m to consciousnes s – or, as Jung would say, to bring the m into our ow n souls . Jung recognized that religious function is not a matte r of faith and outward form whic h leave s the soul utterly barren; it is rooted in the huma n psych e and yearns for expression, but can be dis –
covered only through one’ s ow n direct experience. Thus Jun g states :
With a truly tragic delusion…theologians fail to s e e that it is not a matte r of proving the existence of the light, but of blind peopl e wh o do not kno w that their eye s could see . It is high time w e realize that it is pointles s to praise the light and preach it if nobody can se e it. It is much mor e needful to teach peopl e the art of seeing. For it is obvious that far too man y peopl e are incapable of establishing a connection betwee n the sacred figures and their o w n psyche ; they cannot se e to wha t extent the equivalent image s are lying dormant in their ow n unconscious. 1 3 9 T o Jun g it is evident that the solution to this problem, that is , to develop the capacity for inne r vision and experienc e the mysterium magnum, the cosmi c reality, can be achieved only by making contac t with the psyche . In other words , the psyche , or the mind as Tibetan Buddhist s would say, is the vehicle of transformation.

T h e sacred image s – whethe r thos e of the Tibetan pantheon , or the moder n world, or of any mythology of any time an d place – are the commo n heritage of humanity and a r e present in every individual. And Jung found out in his therapeuti c practice that contemporary me n and women in t he Wester n world spontaneously produced, from their unconscious , image s that wer e part of mythologies of remot e places and ancient times , and that thes e images could hav e a profound and powerful effect on the individual. In t he ac t of vision, of contac t with the symbol, they could be renewed and their psychic energy transformed, a fact Tibetan Buddhist s have know n for centuries .

As mentioned earlier, Jung’ s particular approach to psychotherapy wen t beyond goal s and methods as traditionally understood and practiced; to him psychotherapy is ultimatel y an approach to the numinous . It is on this ground that Jun g and Tantra meet; they penetrat e and transform t he sam e psychi c realities.

T h e proces s of individuation, or psychological development, leads progressively further away from the ego to the Self, from the unconscious to consciousness , from the persona l to the transpersonal, the holy, the realization that the macrocosm is being mirrored in the microcosm of the human psyche .

T h e task is the redemption of the Self, the psychic totality, the lapis, ‘the great treasure that lies hidden in the cave of t h e unconscious,’ 1 4 0 personified in the Buddha , in Vajra-
Yogini, the Sleeping Beauty, suffocated by the ego. And the task can b e accomplished according to Jung, when the archetypa l symbol, the Self, is made conscious and is dis –
engage d from the unconscious identification with the ego.

In othe r words , the Self, God , the Buddha , Vajra Yogini has to b e redeeme d by huma n consciousness . Thi s is the ultimat e goal of psychological development in the framework o f Jung’ s psychotherapy.

T h e notion that matter, symbolizing the temporal reality of the ego , is hiding Go d wa s part of a Gnosti c myth, and also the underlining them e in alchemy. 1 4 1 Th e alchemical, in contras t to the Christian work of redemption, is an active endeavo r whic h is remarkably similar to the Buddhis t attitude . In alchemy , says Jung, ‘man takes upon himself the dut y of carrying out the redeeming opus, and attributes the stat e of suffering and consequent need of redemption to the anima mundi imprisoned in matter.’ 1 4 2 B ut the wor k of redemption, whethe r in alchemy, in Tantr a or Jung, cannot be left to nature; it requires conscious effort. Abov e all it mus t b e a living experience , it mus t take plac e in the mids t of life. Th e alchemist s believed that ‘the substanc e that harbors the divine secret is everywhere…even in the mos t loathsome filth.’143 Tantric Buddhist s similarly believe that every event an d situation, good or evil, can becom e a vehicle of spiritual transformation. Nothing is to b e rejected. An d Jung’ s psychology too welcome s every aspec t of the psyche , reject s n o part of it, and seeks it in the dept h an d the height, darknes s and light, and in simple oute r an d inne r event s of every day life.

The Tibetan Book Of The Dead

In hi s ‘Psychological Commentar y on The Tibetan Book of the Dead’ or Bardo Thodol, Jung states that this work has bee n ‘m y constant companion, and to it I ow e not only The Tibetan Book of the Dead 67 man y stimulating ideas and discoveries , but also many fundamenta l insights.’ 1 4 4 The Tibetan Book of the Dead is ostensibly about death and dying, with instructions to the soul of the departed during forty-nine days of peregrination till ne w birth.

In a modern commentary, basically addressed to the Weste rn world, Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche calls it ‘The Tibetan Boo k o f Birth, ‘ thereby making the point that birth and deat h ar e fundamenta l principles that recur constantly in thi s life. 1 4 5 Th e meanin g of the word bardo is derived from bar whic h mean s ‘in between, ‘ and do which means ‘island’ or ‘mark. ‘ It is therefor e ‘a sort of landmark which stands betwee n tw o things,’ 1 4 6 and it refers to an intermediate state , a period of transition. W e recognize her e the idea of t he intermediary, twilight level of consciousnes s or the twilight period at sunse t or dawn, whe n day turns into night o r vice versa. Thes e are borderline states; they are time s of crisis, whe n the tension is at its peak, but which a r e also mos t pregnant psychologically, since they are times whe n chang e can mos t readily occur. Inherent in such state s is the opportunity for transformation. In the crack betwee n tw o worlds – of the living and the dead, of death a n d rebirth – lies the supreme opportunity. According to t he Bardo Thodol, it is at the momen t immediately following deat h that the mind is capable of attaining liberation. At that momen t on e reache s the subtlest level of consciousness ,
t h e clear light mind, but becaus e on e is not familiar with it o n e misse s the opportunity to us e it to gain enlightenment, a n d instead descends progressively back into the world of t he unconscious and a ne w birth, whe n the whee l of samsara a n d suffering starts all ove r again. In its journey through t he underworld the mind encounter s at first beautiful, peaceful, an d later frightening, wrathful deities . The teaching of t he Book is that they are but projections of the mind which nee d to b e recognized as such, that is, as empt y forms and illusory images . Th e confusion is then transformed into transcendenta l wisdom .

T o Jun g it wa s self-evident that ‘the whol e book is created o ut o f the archetypal content s of the unconscious. ‘ Th e world of gods an d spirits, according to him, is the collective unconsciou s within us. 1 4 7 By introducing this book to the Wester n world, Jun g acknowledged its high psychological significance , its remarkabl e understanding of the phenom –
eno n of projection, an d its philosophical implications: the transitorines s of the phenomenal, relative world, and permanenc e of the eternal absolut e reality. Through his commentar y h e mad e the Book as relevant to contemporary Westerner s as it wa s to the remot e and secluded society of Tibe t centurie s ago .

Today , in a somewha t different manner, Trungpa Rinpoch e throw s light on the significance of Bardo Thodol and looks at it from anothe r standpoint. He interprets the experienc e of bardo in terms of the six realms of existence in Buddhis t mytholog y – the realms of: ‘hell,’ the ‘hungry ghost, ‘ the ‘animal, ‘ the ‘human, ‘ the ‘jealous gods, ‘ and t he ‘gods ‘ – an d relates them to corresponding aspect s of o u r psychologica l states . Th e ‘realm of hell’ is the state of ange r whic h become s self-destructive. The ‘hungry ghos t realm’ is the condition of insatiable hunge r for possessions .

T h e ‘anima l realm’ represent s the absenc e of mystery; it is t he world of security and comfort, predictable and me –
chanical. Th e ‘huma n realm’ is the world of passion and unceasin g pursuit of pleasur e and wealth. The ‘realm of the jealous gods ‘ is the world of paranoia and intrigue. Finally, t he ‘realm of the gods ‘ is the state of pride and narcissism, intoxication with one’ s ego. 1 4 8 All thes e realms are portraits of this world of samsara, of frustration an d suffering. In the deities the soul meets , w e recogniz e our familiar gods of daily living wh o haunt us a n d affec t us all the time if w e do not acknowledge them.

Tha t mean s w e mus t becom e conscious of them, integrate them , and develop an ethical attitude, if w e are to live complet e an d meaningful lives. Otherwise , as with t he vision s in the journey through the bardo, we can go progressively deepe r into the unconscious until we reach t he total darkness , the point of no return.

The Mandala

T h e mandala , the mysti c circle, is a very important and significant symbol in Tibetan Buddhism. It is one of the mos t ancient symbol s which according to Jung can be traced to paleolithi c time, 1 4 9 an d can be found in all places and all ages . Th e mos t elaborat e and artistic mandala s have been created by Tibetan Buddhists . They are image s containing symbol s of opposite s grouped around a central nucleus ,
a n d their structure and design expres s both the world projected outside and the inne r world of the psyche . Thus to t he disciple they reveal the interplay of forces which operate in the cosmo s and within his ow n mind.

T h e Tibetan mandalas are not mere aesthetic compositions; the y ar e religious and philosophical symbol s with the precis e meanin g fixed by tradition. We are told that,
…ever y detail in them is significant and doe s not depen d on arbitrary moods or whim s of an artist, b ut is the outcome of centuries of meditative experienc e and a conventiona l language of symbol s as precis e a s the sign language of mathematical formulas , wher e not only each sign, but also its pos –
ition within the formula determine s its value. 1 5 0 In othe r words , here mandala s have been born out of visions a n d interior experience s of highly advanced meditator s a n d in a very special, spiritually creative environment.

Jung , on the other hand, through his personal experiences a n d in hi s wor k with patient s had observed the same motif o f mandal a occurring spontaneously whe n the psyche wa s in the proces s of reintegration, following the time of dis –
equilibrium. In thos e instance s the author s of mandalas could not possibly have had any knowledge of Tibetan Buddhism . Jun g saw that in his schizophreni c patients
‘mandal a symbol s appea r very frequently in moment s of psychi c disorientation as compensatory ordering factors.

Thi s aspec t is expressed above all in their mathematical structure.’ 1 5 1 H e concluded that the mandal a is an archetype of order, of psychi c integration and wholeness , and appear s as a natural attempt at self-healing. But it wa s in t he dream s an d active imagination of his patient s wh o wer e o n their journe y to individuation that Jung found mos t surprising evidence s of the formation of mandalas . The content s o f thes e visions expres s in a symboli c way the violent clashes of opposites and their eventual reconciliation whe n the Self emerge s at the center of the psyche and is represented b y an innermos t point. Th e harmony which is the n established ha s a numinous quality.

In Tantri c Buddhism the disciples, after being initiated, are given specific instructions on ho w to visualize the mandala, whic h portrays the peaceful and wrathful deities, the clashing force s of existence , the primordial impulses and passions , as well as the spark of divinity – all lying in the depth s of the psyche . By mentally entering the mandalas the y explor e the gros s and subtle workings of their minds , their unconscious , and gradually approach their o w n innermos t nuclear center wher e all opposites are united.

T h e whol e proces s is expressed by mean s of complex symbols , recapitulating the drama of psychi c fragmentation, disintegration and reintegration: from duality, multiplicity, psychi c fragmentation after the primeval unconscious oneness , to psychi c reintegration, non-duality, pure consciousness .

Despite the infinite variety of mandalas, whether produced by Tantri c meditators , or in the dreams and active imagination of Jung’ s patients , or individuals anywher e in the world, w e find in them a fundamental conformity of pattern, for they originate in the collective unconscious ,
commo n to all mankind . The y are symbol s of unity, reconciling opposite s on a highe r level of consciousness . At t he sam e time , they are a mean s of expression of a universal reality, an d b y bein g expressed and contacted they produce profoun d effects inducing transformative experiences . In t he mandal a motif Jung sa w ‘one of the bes t examples of the universa l operation of an archetype.’ 1 5 2

5 Tantric Buddhism And Jung: Connections, Similarities, Differences

Introduction

In thi s chapte r I propos e first to discus s the conceptual and methodologica l equivalent s between the two systems , and identify the point s wher e they meet, wher e they are similar or parallel, an d wher e they differ. Next, I intend to examine Jung’ s view of Eastern traditions in terms of their relevance to the Wester n world, an d hi s as well as the Tibetan Buddhists ‘ view regarding the possible danger s inherent in practicing Tantra . Finally, I should like to commen t on the issue s of ethic s and their potential impac t on the world community , which are an important and integral aspec t of both systems .

Consciousness And The Unconscious

T h e basi c concept s of consciousnes s and the unconscious in the Jungian system an d in Buddhism have a variety of connotation s an d therefor e are subject to much misunderstanding and distortions. To compound the problem, Jung’ s concept s are often confused with thos e of Freud, which are vastly different. I shall try to review some of them, being well awar e that m y survey is grossly inadequate. A whol e lifetime – or a s Buddhist s would say, several lives – of study a n d practice would hardly enabl e anyone to comprehend fully thes e concept s in both systems .

Jun g view s consciousnes s and the unconscious as being of equa l importance. 1 5 3 Consciousness , however, is a ‘lateborn descendant of the unconscious psyche,’ 1 5 4 which means tha t the forme r emerge s out of the latter. In one instance Jun g equate s consciousnes s with ego. 1 5 5 H e postulates that:
Consciousnes s needs a centre, an ego to which somethin g is conscious . W e kno w of no othe r kind of consciousness , no r can w e imagine a conscious –
nes s without an ego . Ther e can be no conscious –
nes s whe n there is no one to say:’/ am conscious.’ 1 5 6 Jun g believe s that consciousness , ‘that mos t remarkable o f all o f nature’ s curiosities,’ exists and ha s an urge to be widene d for the simpl e reason that without it ‘things go les s well.’ 1 5 7 O n the othe r hand Jung talks about ‘higher consciousness ‘ which is a deepe r and mor e receptive consciousnes s that relates to the transpersonal realm.

A n d in paraphrasing a sentenc e by Ignatius Loyola, putting it into psychological terminology, Jung states :
Man’ s consciousnes s wa s created to the end that it m a y (1) recognize…it s descent from a higher unity… ; (2) pay due and careful regard to this source… ; (3) execut e its commands intelligently a nd responsibly…; and (4) thereby afford the psyche as a whol e the optimum degree of life and development…. 1 5 8 According to Jung , the symbol s of wholeness , which resolve and transcend opposites , could be called ‘consciousness, ‘ a s well as ‘self,’ ‘highe r ego, ‘ or anything else. To him , ‘all thes e terms are simply name s for the facts that alon e carry weight.’ 1 5 9 T h e development and extension of the sphere of consciousnes s is wha t Jun g calls individuation. 1 6 0 But he postulates tha t the conscious mind occupie s only a relatively central position whil e the unconscious psyche surrounds it. 1 6 1 T h e unconscious is the psychi c area with an unlimited scope . It is the ‘matrix of all potentialities,’ 1 6 2 and it is bes t imagined a s a fluid state which has a life of its own, and whos e activity is autonomou s and independent. ‘The unconscious perceives , ha s purpose s and intuitions , feels and think s as doe s the conscious mind.’ 1 6 3 Jung defines the content s of the unconscious as follows :
…everything of which I know , but of which I am n o t at the momen t thinking; everything of which I
w a s onc e conscious but have no w forgotten; everything perceived by m y senses , but not noted by m y conscious mind; everything which, involuntarily and without paying attention to it, I feel, think, remember, want, and do; all the future things that are taking shape in m e and will sometim e com e to consciousness…. 1 6 7 Thu s the unconscious includes future content s of the conscious psyche , and anticipates future conscious proces –
ses . But in addition, the unconscious contains ancestral deposit s accumulated since immemorial time. To Jung therefor e the unconscious ha s a Janus face: on e side of it point s bac k to prehistory, the world of raw instincts, and its other side point s toward man’ s future fate. 1 6 5 Thi s is a paradox for
‘the unconscious is seen a s a creative factor, even as a bold innovator, an d ye t it is at the same time the stronghold of ancestra l conservatism.’ 1 6 6 Like Mercurius – the personification of the unconscious – it is dualistic and contains all aspect s of huma n nature : dark and light, evil and good, bestial an d superhuman , demoni c and divine. 1 6 7 On e can conceiv e of the unconscious as a treasure-house , which is t h e sourc e of all inspiration, creativity and of wisdom. As an autonomou s psychi c system which speaks in the language of symbols , on e of its roles is to correct the biases of the conscious mind and compensat e its one-sidednes s with a broader, imaginal, non-rational perception that restores the balanc e and reveals a mor e comprehensive meaning.

Unconsciou s motive s are often wiser and mor e objective than conscious thinking. Therefore the unconscious may be a valuable guide pointing the way to one’ s true destination, a destination that is true to one’ s self and not falsified by prejudice s of the conscious mind.

At the basi s of separat e individual consciousnes s and the unconsciou s behind it, there is the collective unconscious ,
t he commo n heritage of all mankind and the universal sourc e of all conscious life. In the depth of the collective unconsciou s ther e are n o individual or cultural differences ,
n o separation. It is the realm of primordial unity, nonduality, an d through it each person is connected with the res t of humanity .

Tibetan Buddhist s say that the conscious mind whe n it is clear, unobscured, free from projections – the pure consciousnes s – is the root of happines s and liberation, and is experienced as a state of bliss. Thi s is the highes t state of consciousnes s know n as clear light. However, there are various kinds and degree s of consciousnes s and they are described in different terms . Similarly, there are various level s of consciousnes s and the unconscious in the structure of the psych e as conceptualized by Jung.

In the view of on e school of Buddhis t tenet s there are six kinds of consciousness : those of sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, an d the menta l consciousness . The n there is the afflicted, or deluded, consciousnes s responsible for the misconception of the ego . An d underlying all of it is the
‘stor e consciousness ‘ (alaya-vijnana), the source of all consciousness , the Universal Mind, in which primordial forms a n d all experience s since beginningles s time are stored. Its latent content s appea r to the othe r kinds of consciousnes s whe n aroused by the corresponding conditions and associations .

16 8 T h e notion of store consciousnes s clearly corresponds to Jung’ s concept of the unconscious . Like Jung’ s description of t he unconscious , Lama Govinda argues that alaya-vijnana
…contains demoni c as well as divine qualities, cruelty as well a s compassion, egotism as well as selflessness , delusion a s well as knowledge , blind passion and darkes t drives as well as profound longing for light and liberation. 1 6 9 A n d in discussing the Tantri c experienc e Lama Govinda states :
It is no t sufficient to identify ourselves with the onenes s of a commo n origin or a potential Buddhahood , unles s w e take the decisive step toward the transformation an d reintegration of the divergent tendencie s or element s of our psyche. 1 7 0 Whe n w e try to compare , as Jung did, the Buddhis t concep t of enlightened mind with the collective unconscious or the higher consciousness , we encounte r enormous obstacle s du e to the fact that all thes e concept s have many different aspects , and are ambiguous and controversial.

Furthermor e w e are dealing her e with two different categories : philosophical and metaphysical on one hand, and psychologica l o n the othe r hand, and consequently no real compariso n could be made . Yet, in either system, Buddhis t or Jung’s , thes e categories represent only abstract know –
ledge , an d do not and cannot expres s the profound experienc e that is the aim of both, namely individual transformation, achieved by transcending the mundane existence, and thereby attaining liberation or self-realization. In that momen t of transcendenc e the knowledge ceases to be philosophica l or psychological: it is the indescribable, direct, immediat e knowledge beyond words and thoughts , the experienc e of the void (sunyata), the numinous , the Self, onenes s of ma n and God .

Jun g referred to this experience , in one way or another, throug h muc h of his writings , but he articulated it mos t eloquentl y in hi s Septem Sermones ad Mortuos – Seven Sermon s to the Dead – written during the period of hi s confrontation with the unconscious . Thi s brief but extraordinary work, replete with paradoxes , is strikingly reminiscen t of Buddhis t thinking. In fact it echoe s the words of The Heart Sutra, ‘form is emptiness , emptines s is form, ‘ or from The Lankavatara Sutra, the statement that ‘space is form, and. . .as spac e penetrate s into form, form is space.’ 1 7 1 A n d no w thi s is Jun g speaking:
Nothingnes s is the same as fullness . In infinity full is n o better than empty. Nothingnes s is both empty a n d full….A thing that is infinite and eternal hath n o qualities , since it hath all qualities. 1 7 2 Jun g name s this nothingnes s or fullness ‘pleroma,’ 1 7 3 which h e distinguishe s from ‘creatura,’ the principle of distinctiveness . In pleroma ‘both thinking and being cease, since t he eternal and infinite posses s no qualities…In the pleroma ther e is nothing and everything.’ 1 7 4 And in a further passage Jun g writes :
Everything that discrimination taketh out of the pleroma is a pair of opposites . To god, therefore, alway s belongeth the devil.

Thi s inseparability is a s close and, as your ow n life hath mad e you see , as indissoluble as the pleroma itself. Thu s it is that both stand very close to the pleroma , in which all opposite s are extinguished and joined. 1 7 5 O n e recognize s in pleroma the Buddhis t concept of emptiness , as well as the mos t important Tantri c concept of polarity and its integration, which is at the very heart of ever y Vajrayana meditative practice. At the same time Jung’ s concept of the ‘transcendent function’ is a development and practical application of the principle of pleroma. It should be note d that Jun g wrot e Septem Sermones ad Mortuos at the time whe n h e had not ye t discovered the Eastern traditions.

Spiritual Transformation

T h e ultimate goal of Jung’ s psychology and of Tibetan Buddhism is spiritual transformation. Jung refers to it as selfrealization, wholeness , whil e for Tibetan Buddhist s it is Buddhahood , enlightenment, for the sake of all beings . According to the latter every single individual has the potential to becom e a Buddha , to achieve the supreme trans –
formation. Th e urge for light, for a higher consciousness ,
according to the Buddhist s as well as Jung, has been always presen t and is ubiquitous . As Jung says :
…within the soul from its primordial beginnings ther e ha s bee n a desire for light and an irrepres –
sible urge to rise out of the primal darkness…the psychi c primal night…i s the same today as it has bee n for countles s millions of years . The longing for light is the longing for consciousness. 1 7 6 F o r the Buddhis t there is pressur e towards Buddhahood, whic h is man’ s quintessential nature , and for Jung it is the urg e towards wholeness . In both instances it entails a long, a n d for Jun g a never-ending journey, which is unique to each individual and which can be accomplished only in the mind . In Tantri c Buddhism in particular, the mind is the king whos e powe r is unlimited. Jus t like the alchemis t wh o c an chang e metal into gold, the mind can transform any even t into transcendenta l wisdom and us e it as a means to attain enlightenment. An d that majesti c powe r lies within u s , nowher e else , and not apart from us , but to recognize it w e nee d the key of consciousness .

According to the teaching of Tantric Buddhism, enlightenment, liberation, can b e attained in the present life. It consist s of a fundamental change in our perception of reality,
‘the turning about in the deepes t seat of consciousness, ‘
whe n the T or self-consciousnes s has turned its attention towards the universal consciousness . It is the ‘intuitive experienc e of the infinite and the all-embracing onenes s of all that is.’ 1 7 7 Th e experienc e can also be described as a discovery of a world beyond the ordinary world of appearances , in whic h all opposite s no longer exist. In this ope n space , on e abandon s all limitations ; there is no exclusiveness , no this or that, but this and that, everything is included, nothing rejected. Thi s is the world of nonduality, pleroma , from which everything originates , and into which everything disappears . Buddhist s call it sunyata, emptiness , the open space which contains both the principle of causality and synchronicity.

In its deepes t metaphysical sense , it [sunyata] is t he primordial ground, the ever-present starting point of all creation. It is the principle of unlimited potentiality… . O n the intellectual plane sunyata is t he relativity of all things and conditions , insofar as n o thing exists independently but only in relationship to other s – and ultimately in relationship to the whol e universe. Thi s relationship is mor e than a mer e causal, time-space relationship; it is o n e of a commo n ground and a simultaneous pres – enc e of all factors of existence…. 1 7 8 From the Tantric point of view each being contains the whol e universe . Ther e is no separation of the individual and universal mind, the mind not being subject to time and spac e limitation. Today the discoveries of modern physics reveal the basi c view of the world as one of unity, interrelation, an d interpenetration of all things and events. 1 7 9 A n d according to The Avatamsaka Sutra,
All the Buddha-lands and all the Buddha s themselves , are manifested in m y ow n being…. 1 8 0 Thi s parallels Jung’ s conviction that the macrocosm manifest s itself in the microcosm of the huma n psyche . He talks abou t
…tha t unknow n quantity in man which is as universal and wide as the world itself, which is in him by natur e and cannot be acquired. Psychologically, this corresponds to the collective unconscious…. 1 8 1 T h e collective unconscious is the realm of the psyche wher e non-duality prevails, but which contains, like sunyata, t h e principle of unlimited potentiality. Thus to Jung the principle s of the univers e are reflected in the psyche .

The Union Of Opposites

T h e fundamental concept in Tantra is recognition of polarity, a n d its integration is the core of Tantric practice: the union of mal e an d femal e energies , matte r and spirit, active and passive principles , wisdom, the discriminating principle
(personified b y Manjushri, the Buddha of wisdom), and compassion , the unifying principle (personified b y Avalokiteshvara , the Buddh a of compassion).

T h e principle of opposites is equally of primary importance in Jung’ s psychology. For Jung , opposition is inherent in t he structur e of the psyche , as it is in the cosmos : the cosmologica l is reflected on the psychological level. Within t he framework of his psychology, the basic pair of opposites a r e consciousnes s an d the unconscious . On e could say that o n the cosmologica l level, the former represent s creatura, individuality, and the latter pleroma , non-duality.

O n the psychological level, the significance of the principle o f opposite s lies in the fact that the psyche is a dynami c unity, a self-regulating system in which consciousnes s and t he unconscious are complementar y to each other. To deny o n e or the othe r result s in one-sidedness , disequilibrium a n d henc e a los s of wholeness . ‘Ther e mus t always be a hig h and low, hot an d cold, etc… ‘ says Jung. However, ‘the point is not conversion into the opposite but conservation of previous value s togethe r with recognition of their opposites.’ 1 8 2 Nothin g is rejected, and nothing is accepted as an absolute . In Jung’ s view:
It is.. .a fundamenta l mistake to imagine that whe n w e se e the non-value in a value or the untruth in

The Middle Way And The Madhyamika 81

t he truth, the value or the truth cease s to exist. It h a s only becom e relative. Everything huma n is relative becaus e everything rest s on an inner po –
larity…. 1 8 3 T o Jun g ‘the union of opposites through the middle path’ is a
‘mos t fundamenta l item of inward experience.’ 1 8 4 The resolution of opposite s end s conflict and brings wholeness . But wholenes s canno t b e achieved through suppression or ne –
gation, which is always one-sided, but only by raising one’ s standpoint to a highe r level of consciousness . Thi s is t he basi c premis e of Jung’ s psychological method. ‘Individuation, or becoming whole, ‘ he says ‘is neither a summum bonum nor a summum desideratum, but the painful experience of the union of opposites.’ 185 1 should like to suggest though, tha t the realization of the union of opposites is the summum bonum becaus e it brings with it spiritual freedom, experience d in the integrated and unified personality.

Buddh a on hi s journey to Enlightenment abandoned as –
ceticism, as he mus t have realized that by practicing it one reject s part of oneself and consequently wholenes s cannot b e attained. Instead h e adopted and later taught the Middle Way .

The Middle Way And The Madhyamika

Buddha’ s way , the middl e way, wa s reformulated and systematized in philosophical terms by the third century Indian philosophe r Nagarjuna in his Madhyamika (Middle Way ) system of thought, which is considered to b e the centra l philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism. While Buddha maintained hi s ‘nobl e silence’ whe n asked philosophical a n d metaphysica l questions , Nagarjuna , a brilliant dialectician, applied the dialectic method and argued that truth is n o t to b e found in an y view or concept, in any system of understanding . Th e truth, the Absolute , which is inexpres –
sible, can only be comprehended in rising above any kind o f exclusiveness . Th e conflict produced by reason and contendin g positions can b e resolved by attaining a higher standpoin t – that is, by the awarenes s of the total rather than the separate parts. On e goes beyond to intuition, considered to b e a highe r faculty: the non-dua l knowledge , the knowledg e of the Real, the Absolute .

A n d her e is Jung’ s view of intuition:
In intuition a content present s itself whol e and complete , without our being able to explain or discove r ho w this content came into existence.

…Intuitive knowledg e possesse s an intrinsic certainty an d conviction…. 1 8 6 T h e centra l point in the philosophy of Nagarjuna is the rul e of th e Middl e Way , whic h in practice means : “t o see thing s as the y are , to recogniz e the possibility of determinin g thing s differently from different standpoint s and to recogniz e that thes e determinations cannot b e seized as absolute.” 1 8 7 Equally basic to the philosophy of Nagarjuna is the distinction betwee n the mundan e and ultimate truth, which is actually on e of the foundations of Buddha’ s teaching, and is alway s emphasized in Mahayana Buddhism. But this does n o t mea n a separation between the worldly and the transcendental. It is rather the realization of the relativity of the mundane , and a consequent deepening of inward aware –
nes s in the proces s of which the mundane , the superficial, is no t destroyed but is transformed and then seen in a new light. 1 8 8 T h e Madhyamik a teache s that
…t o realize the ultimate is not to abandon the mundan e but to learn to se e it ‘with the eye of wisdom ‘ . . . Wha t needs to b e abandoned is one’ s perversions and false clingings….Thi s applies not onl y to actual life but to words , concepts , understanding, systems of understanding. 1 8 9

Ego And Non-Ego

In the Tantri c system, an y worldly pleasure , any experience o f th e senses , an y occasion in thi s world can become an opportunit y for enlightenment whe n wisdom is applied.

W e hav e seen that wisdo m (prajna) implies non-exclusiveness , non-attachment, the principle of relativity, sunyata.

T h e greates t obstacle is the ego. Ego – or rather one’ s view o f one’ s T – is at the root of all problems and sufferings, according to Buddhis t thought. Whe n Buddhist s talk about e g o the y refer to the illusory belief in a solid, concrete, separat e entity, independent and disconnected from any othe r phenomena . In that sens e naturally the ego become s an insurmountabl e barrier between oneself and the rest of t he world, with no possibility of true communication and communion , not only with other s but also with the depth of oneself. Tha t barrier ha s to be demolished, and that is the chie f problem in the path to liberation.

T h e aim, then, is not so much the dissolution of the ego a s th e dissolution of the false view of the ego; and wha t is to b e achieved is an opennes s to all possibilities that present themselves , and above all, a realization that we are infinitely mor e than w e believe w e are whe n identified with our concret e little ego . W e have limitless potentials , onc e w e a r e free from the bondage of our egocentric world: the Buddhis t would say, w e can become a Buddha .

Indeed, according to Jung , the ego, full of distortions and projections , needs to b e dissolved befor e the Self can emerge . Th e Self, however, which is the totality of the psyche , include s the ego . In the proces s of individuation o n e doe s not destroy the ego, rather one places it in subordinat e relation to the Self. Th e ego is no longe r the center of t he personality; the Self, the mandala , which unites all opposites , is its center. Wha t is dissolved is the inflated, concret e ego , pursuing its exclusive selfish purposes , just following its ow n impulses . The individuated ego, in relation to th e Self, is not only needed for adequat e functioni ng o n wha t the Buddhist s refer to as the mundan e level of reality; it i s also of crucial importanc e in the encounte r wit h the transpersonal, in orde r to preserve the integrity of t h e psyche .

F or Jung , transformation is the goal of psychotherapy, a n d the disappearanc e of egohood is the only criterion of change . But he maintains that frequently for Westerner s ‘a conscious eg o and a cultivated understanding mus t first be produced through analysi s befor e one can even think about abolishing egohood.’ 1 9 0 Howeve r in the alchemical sense of solutio, the dissolution of a dry, hard soil of ego-consciousnes s through a confrontation with and fertilization by the fluid unconscious is a necessar y prerequisite for transmutation to take place.

Thi s is anothe r wa y of viewing the sacrifice of the personal e g o to the transpersona l Self, the ongoing proces s of death a n d rebirth. Th e experienc e of non-duality, the mystical experience, or every creative act mus t go through that process.

T h e illusion of a permanent, separate ego doe s not mean ther e is no individuality. Ou r essential onenes s with the universe , in the view of Lama Govinda ,
…i s not samenes s or unqualified identity, but an organi c relationship, in which differentiation and uniquenes s of function are as important as that ultimat e or basi c unity.

Individuality and universality are not mutually exclusive values , but two sides of the same reality, compensating, fulfilling, and complementing each other, an d becoming one in the experience of enlightenment. Thi s experienc e doe s not dissolve t he mind into an amorphous All, but rather brings t he realization that the individual itself contains ‘ t he totality focalized in its very core. 1 9 1 Universality and individuality, unity and diversity, pleroma an d creatura, nirvana and samsara, the ‘two sides of the sam e reality’; there could not be one without its opposite .

Suffering And Methods Of Healing

Both Buddhis m and Jun g have as their primary concern relief o f suffering. In fact the whol e Buddhis t system has evolved around that cor e idea initially formulated by Buddh a in the Four Nobl e Truths that all life is suffering, b ut ther e can be an end to it. In Mahayana Buddhism the ideal o f the Bodhisattva, the symbol of compassion, is the ultimat e expression of the underlying concern to lead every bein g to freedom from suffering, to enlightenment.

Jun g too tells us in his autobiography and throughout his writings that he is concerned with the healing of human suffering. ‘We do not profess ‘ he says ,
…a psychology with merely academic pretensions, o r see k explanations that have no bearing on life. Wha t w e want is a practical psychology which yields approvabl e result s – one which explains things in a wa y that mus t be justified by the outcom e for the patient. 1 9 2 B ut unlik e Buddha , Jun g doe s not perceive the possibility of an en d to suffering. In hi s vie w happines s and sufferin g represent anothe r pair of opposites , indis –
pensabl e to life, an d on e canno t exis t without the other. H e states :
M a n ha s to cope with the problem of suffering.

T h e Oriental want s to get rid of suffering by casting it off. Western ma n tries to suppres s suffering with drugs . But suffering has to be overcome , and t he only wa y to overcome it is to endur e it. We learn that only from him [the Crucified Christ]. 1 9 3 At anothe r time, Jung discusses the double-edged pos –
sibility of the consequences of suffering: it can be a discipline
‘neede d for the emotiona l chaos of man, though at the same time it can kill the living spirit…it remains forever an unresolved question whethe r suffering is educative or de –
moralizing. … Man’ s fate ha s always swung between day a n d night. Ther e is nothing w e can do to change this/ 1 9 4 Thu s suffering ha s the potential of becoming a ‘psychi c mover/ a prelude to the process of healing and individuation or it can lead to pathology. Th e painful symptoms of a neurosi s often are the expression of psyche’ s urge towards wholeness . They contain seeds of potentials to be actualized, a n d whe n they are worked with rather than avoided or suppresse d they becom e source s of ne w achievements ,
n e w integration – ‘the dark night of the soul’ turns into illumination. Jun g experienced that throughout his life. O n t he othe r han d excessive , overwhelming suffering, particularly in an individual whos e inne r constitution is weak and t he eg o disconnected from the Self, can lead to diametrically opposit e directions : madness , criminality, and other kinds o f pathology .

T h e path leading via the underworld to illumination, to t he Self, is by n o mean s an easy one . It requires the sacrifice o f ou r mos t cherished possession, our ego, so that the Self c an emerge . Similarly Buddhist s say the root of all suffering is attachmen t to ego , and they urge us to relinquish it, so tha t our true nature , our Buddha-nature , can be revealed.

B ut thi s can only com e about spontaneously; it cannot be forced, either with Jung’ s therapeutic methods , or any Buddhis t methods .

In both systems the path differs with each individual, a n d it is always carried on within individuals as their ow n uniqu e inne r work. Jung’ s proces s of individuation, his journe y to wholeness , is a very individual pursuit. Jung w a s eve n opposed to the us e of groups as a psychotherapeuti c method . Th e path of the Buddhis t adept is likewise ver y individual, although it make s us e of group practice, recognizing the powerful energy that is generated from it, a n d especially from participation in rituals.

It is invariably, in both systems , a non-dogmatic , empirical metho d aimed at the living inne r experience , a dynami c w a y of going inward towards the center, wher e the seed of enlightenment, of the Self, is contained in each of us . ‘No textbook can teach psychology; on e learns by actual experienc e ‘ 1 9 S – says Jung. An d in anothe r passage he writes : Tn psycholog y on e possesse s nothing unles s one ha s experience d it in reality. Henc e a purely intellectual insight is not enough , becaus e on e know s only the words and not the substanc e of the thing from inside.’ 1 9 6 T h e cognitive function, though, is not minimized in Jung, or in Buddhism. According to the Tibetans, ‘Intellectual understandin g increase s the powe r of the rational mind a n d thi s increase s the powe r of formal meditation.’ 1 9 7 After listening to the teaching disciples mus t try to understand it through reason befor e they can transform it into living reality. An d then if it doe s not correspond to their experienc e of living reality they should abandon it. Is that not wha t Jun g tells us whe n h e maintains that a conscious understanding mus t precede the disappearance of egohood?

A n d furthermore , is he not in his psychology primarily concerned with practical result s that mus t be justified by t h e subjective experienc e of the patient he is treating?

T h e First Nobl e Truth, which is that the nature of life is suffering, mus t first b e clearly understood before anything els e can b e done . It ha s been said that the path leading to liberation is completed through intellectual, as well as moral a n d spiritual perfection. In the Buddhis t practice of mindfulnes s on e is closely attentive to the activities of the mind, idea s and thoughts , sensations and feelings . An d in Tantra especially, all the hidden tendencies , projections , mus t b e know n an d experienced befor e they can b e transmuted into wisdom .

In Jungian analysi s on e mus t deal with one’ s shadow , the dar k rejected part of the psyche , detec t projections and egocentri c aims . Th e intensity of the emotional turmoil is n o t repressed or devalued, but the energy that is contained ther e is utilized in the proces s of change . Similarly in Tantric practices the energy of the emotions , like anger, desire, aversion, etc. , is mobilized to transmut e the passion. Both system s fully recognize the potential destructivenes s of hidden unconscious tendencies . For that reason the total psyche mus t b e approached, its dark as well as its light aspects , personified in Tantra by peaceful and wrathful deities , repeatedly constructed and dissolved in one’ s visualization. On e is continually facing the conflict of opposites in th e effort to transcend them. Thi s is the purpos e of the sadhanas (meditation exercises), whic h are based on a profoun d understanding of depth psychology.

In Jungian analysis , the transcendent function is the comparabl e principle that is aimed at in the dialectic proces s betwee n analyst s and analysands . The latter on their way to individuation are reconciling the conflicting parts of their psyche , the split between the conscious ego and the unconscious an d reaching beyond all pairs of opposites .

In both systems the adept, or the analysand, mus t eventually become independent from outside support. The methods use d in workin g o n inne r growth vary infinitely, dependi n g o n th e person , the time , and the circumstances .

Buddh a use d a different language to teach the same truth to different people , bein g awar e of the importanc e of individua l characteristic s and needs . ‘Sinc e individuality
. . . i s absolutel y unique , unpredictable , and uninterpretable, ‘ Jun g stresses , ‘the therapis t mus t abandon all hi s preconception s and techniques . . . ,’ 1 9 8 Th e integrity of t h e psych e of the othe r is highly respected and neve r to b e violated b y imposin g one’ s ow n definitions and preconceive d ideas . In thi s manne r true communication can b e established . Thi s i s Jung’ s view , but it is also in the spirit of th e Madhyamik a philosophy .

Transformation come s about through the vehicle of symbols . Jun g recognized that ‘any imagination is a potentiality,’ 1 9 9 an d through hi s method of active imagination found a wa y of healing and transforming the personality.

Similarly in Tantri c meditation the initiate become s impregnated with the symbol s visualized, the deities – all different symbol s of Buddh a – and is transformed into Buddha .

In the Tantri c mode l Jung discerned an analogy to his psychology of the unconscious . H e points out that Tantra deal s with content s which are ‘constantly reproduced by our unconscious in this form or another…. This is not mysticism, thi s is psychology.’ 2 0 0 Not e should b e mad e of the powerful symbology that Tibetan Buddhist s us e in their iconography (thangkas), their sacred texts , and their rituals, all designed to expres s the inexpressible and to evoke certain experiences that transport t he individual to highe r levels of consciousnes s beyond mundan e reality. Th e teachings are done in a style that is poetic , imaginal, and often repetitive. In his writings Jung also make s abundan t us e of repetition, circumambulation, paradoxes , and avoids a language and style that is purely rational. H e tells us that,
…in describing the living proces s of the psyche , I
deliberately and consciously give preference to a dramatic , mythological way of thinking and speaking, becaus e this is not only mor e expressive but also mor e exac t than an abstract scientific terminology…. 2 0 1

Redemption Of God

T h e idea of psychic transformation is fundamental to Tantra, Jung , and alchemy. In Tantra adept s identify with the divine qualities , in the proces s of which they become awar e of their ow n divine essence . Th e Buddhist, w e are told,
…believe s in the divine principle in man, the inborn spark of light (bodhi-citta) embodied in his consciousnes s as a yearning toward perfection, toward completeness , toward Enlightenment. To p ut it paradoxically, it is not Go d wh o creates man , but ma n wh o creates Go d in his image, i.e.,
t he idea of the divine aim within himself, which h e realizes in the fires of suffering from which compassion , understanding, love and wisdom are born.

T h e unfoldment of individual life in the universe h a s n o othe r aim apparently but to becom e conscious of it s ow n divine essence , and since this proces s goe s on continuously , it represent s a perpetua l birth of Go d or, to put it into Buddhis t terminology, the continuous arising of Enlightened Beings , in each of who m the totality of the univers e become s conscious. 2 0 2 Her e w e find an extraordinary parallel to Jung’ s thought tha t ‘the creator…needs Ma n to illuminate his creation’ 2 0 3 a n d that thi s wor k can b e accomplished only in theindividual psyche , which is the carrier of the divine spark.

L e t us listen to Jung speaking on this subject:
Although the divine incarnation is a cosmi c and absolut e event, it only manifest s empirically in thos e relatively few individual s capable of enough consciousnes s to mak e ethical decisions , i.e., to decide for the Good . Therefor e Go d can be called goo d only in as muc h as H e is able to manifes t Hi s goodnes s in individuals. His moral quality depends upo n individuals . Tha t is wh y H e incarnates . Individuation and individual existence are indispensabl e for the transformation of Go d the Creator. 2 0 4 T h e Mahayan a Bodhisattva – wh o has attained the highes t state of consciousnes s and through his actions and attitudes , hi s wisdom and compassion, is an active force in furthering ‘the transformation of God’ – he is, it seems to me ,
in Jung’ s terms , the mos t fully accomplished individuated perso n o n who m Go d depend s to illuminate Hi s creation.

Both Jun g and Buddhist s affirm that only huma n beings can perform that task in the univers e – therefore the necessity for huma n existence , or as Tibetan Buddhist s would say for
‘the precious huma n rebirth.’ Thi s is perhaps the true meanin g of the Mahayana ideal of the Bodhisattva whos e sol e an d unique purpos e in this world is to work for the benefit of all beings . An d whe n Bodhisattvas are teaching a n d inspiring thos e on the path to liberation continuously a n d progressively to expand their consciousness , they are leading them towards those inward experiences intimated by Jung , and alluded to in his statement that: ‘…it can be expected that w e are going to contac t sphere s of a not yet transformed Go d whe n our consciousnes s begins to extend into the sphere of the unconscious.’ 2 0 5 However, the difference between the Mahayana Buddhis t a n d Jun g is that in Jung’ s thought the unconscious can neve r b e totally conscious and the proces s of individuation is neve r completed, wherea s to the Buddhis t it is possible to kno w all of the unknowable and became fully enlightened.

W e shoul d b e reminde d here , that in hi s entire work Jung i s onl y considerin g psychologica l experience s that can b e establishe d empirically and is not dealing with metaphysica l categories . Therefore , Jung states ,
… whe n Go d or the Ta o is named an impulse of the soul, or a psychi c state, something has been said about the knowabl e only, but nothing about the unknowable , about which nothing can be determined. 2 0 6 In Jung’ s view, although it is man’ s task to reach maximum level s of consciousness , any increase of it brings an additional burden. Thi s is diametrically opposed to the view of Mahayan a Buddhist s that consciousnes s is at the source of liberation, and it is bliss . The actual proces s in reaching t he goal is by no mean s free from tortures . The advanced discipl e ma y b e put to all kinds of tests , and the experiences endure d are not unlike the frightful and tormenting visions of the alchemis t Zosimos. 2 0 7 But the end result is nothing short of bliss . Bliss is consistently emphasized in Tantric meditation, an d it is an experienc e that come s even to the les s advanced meditator. Th e cheerfulnes s and infectious laughte r of Tibetan lamas , their exuberanc e coupled with calm an d peacefulness , their exquisite spontaneity, warmth a n d opennes s reflect the state of mind of huma n beings unencumbere d by problems and burdens of daily life, ma – terial or psychological, no r by fear of death. Thi s is the very first impression invariably gained by anyone wh o has had t he goo d fortune and privilege to mee t them. By their attitude an d behavio r it i s as though they want to convey to us , in a wordles s but clear, unequivocal language, that it is indeed possible to transcend suffering, as their first Master h a d taught them.

In contras t to it, Jung doe s not propose to help his patients e n d their suffering. H e believes that: ‘Life demands for its completio n an d fulfilment a balance between joy and sorrow.’ 2 0 8 Whil e he contends that suffering is a natural, not unhealth y aspec t of life, and happines s an impossible state to attain, Tibetan Buddhist s claim that suffering can be transmuted into happiness .

However, Buddhists , as well as Jung, and the alchemists ,
perceive that the major task to accomplish is the redemption o f the divine spark within. To the Tantri c Buddhis t it mean s finding the deity hidden in the unconscious and suffocated by the ego . To Jung it is the conscious realization o f the Self, an d its separation from the ego. To the alchemis t it is the redemption of the anima mundi imprisoned in matter.

Jung’S View Of Eastern Traditions

O n e can find man y paradoxe s and inconsistencies in Jung’ s writings , an d hi s views of Eastern traditions are a good exampl e of this . At time s Jung is speaking in favor of Eastern traditions , praising their ways of approaching the psych e an d their intuitive wisdom, which the Wes t lacks, a n d at othe r time s he warns Westerner s agains t the danger s o f embracin g a system that is foreign to their culture.

Personally I a m amazed at Jung’ s penetrating understandi ng (despit e occasional misconceptions ) of the Eastern systems , including the Tibetan tradition, without having h a d the benefit of direct contac t with the latter and without experiencing their meditative practices. I am just as amazed toda y at som e of the Tibetan lamas ‘ keen perceptivenes s a n d sensitivity to the Wes t and its lifestyle. I have often pondere d ove r it, an d I sugges t that in both cases this is due to the intuitive wisdom of a clear, unprejudiced mind whic h is capabl e of transcending historical and cultural barrier s and reaching valid conclusions .

Jun g see s vas t difference s between the Eastern and Weste rn standpoint s and raises the question of the possibility and advisability of imitating each other. 2 0 7 Along with this contention, h e also tells us that in the huma n psyche the collective unconscious ‘possesse s a commo n substratum transcending all differences in culture and consciousness.’ 2 1 0 Thi s unconscious psyche , by virtue of being commo n to all huma n beings , contains ‘latent predispositions towards identical reactions.’ 2 1 1 Indeed Jung is awar e of the close parallel s betwee n Eastern and Western psychology. 2 1 2 Hi s concern , though, is that Westerner s will adopt Eastern value s from their usual extroverted position, and mak e dogma s out of them, rather than seek thos e values within themselves , in their psyche . H e finds that the core of Eastern teachings consist s in inward looking of the mind, which in itself ha s a self-liberating power. H e is very critical of the Westerner s wh o merely attempt to imitate and whos e endeavor s remain superficial and therefore useless , and mor e than that, even damaging to their psyche . Jung remarks :
O n e canno t b e too cautious in thes e matters , for wha t with the imitative urge and a positively morbid avidity to posses s themselve s of outlandish feather s and deck themselve s out in this exotic plumage , far too man y peopl e are misled into snatching at such ‘magical’ ideas and applying the m externally, like an ointment. Peopl e will do anything , no matte r ho w absurd, in order to avoid facing their ow n souls. 2 1 3 Jun g says that the basi c problem, whethe r in the Eastern o r Western world, ‘is not so much a withdrawal from the object s of desire, a s a mor e detached attitude to desire as such, n o matte r wha t its object.’ 2 1 5 In this respect he fully understood on e of the principal postulates of Tantra, that it is not desire as such, but lack of control, possessiveness , and attachment to desire that brings about a confused state of mind, and consequently suffering. Henc e the need to see all phenomen a as impermanent and empty.

Jun g cannot conceive of the possibility of achieving total non-duality, a state of at-onement. ‘One cannot know some –
thing that is not distinct from oneself….I therefore assume that, in thi s point, Eastern intuition has overreached itself.’ 2 1 6 In makin g this statement Jung seems to forget that h i s ow n concept s are often irrational and paradoxical, and beside s that, non-duality on a transpersonal level doe s not exclude individuality o n a conventional level of existence.

Furthermor e experience s of non-duality are not unknow n in the Wester n tradition too. I a m referring her e to the discipline s an d contemplative exercises of medieval monasti c life, whe n the individual for a momen t felt in Unity with God , or rathe r was God, 2 1 7 like the Tantric meditator w h o become s the deity h e visualizes .

In man y way s Jun g come s closer to Eastern systems than to Western traditions despite his insistence that Westerner s should stay with their ow n traditions, their symbol s and mythology . Along with the Buddhists , he rejects dogma s a n d in hi s psychology, like in Buddhis t teaching, it is only t h e subjective , inne r experienc e that validates the theory.

Jun g himself had profound inne r experiences , and it is from the depth of his soul that he gained direct immediate knowledg e whic h he then translated into his work. In that respec t h e wa s following the gnosti c tradition. Th e latter h a d inspired an d influenced him before Eastern traditions cam e to his attention. Scholars have suggested that Hindu or Buddhis t traditions influenced gnosticism, although there is n o conclusive evidence. 2 1 8 It may be that the human mind independently produced similar or identical ideas in two different parts of the world. Thi s would only confirm Jung’ s concept of the common structure of the psyche, transcending cultural differences. But whatever its origin, gnosticism has mor e than superficial parallels with Buddhism.

In comparing these two systems one finds many analogies.

Som e o f the mos t salient of thes e include the idea of huma n liberatio n through internal transformation; of the psyche carryin g withi n itself the potential for liberation; of the emphasi s on the primac y of immediat e experience ; and of t h e nee d for initial guidanc e but the eventual freedom from a n y external authority. Both systems also se e the disciples ‘ o w n mind s a s their guide and it is there that they mus t discove r the truth. A further similarity is the belief that not sin but ignorance , lack of self-knowledge , is the source of suffering an d enslavement by unconscious impulses : the o n e wh o remains ignorant lives in illusion and cannot experienc e fulfilment. And , of course , the discovery of the divine within is central to each: the on e wh o achieves gnosi s is n o longe r a Christian but become s Christ. 2 1 9 Her e is a passage from the Gnosti c Gospe l of Philip that is remarkable in its similarity to the fundamental Tantric view:
…Yo u sa w the spirit, you became spirit. You saw Christ, you becam e Christ. You saw [the Father, you] shall becom e Father…you se e yourself, and what you see you shall [become].220 A n d no w anothe r passage implying that the Kingdom of G o d is but the symbol for a transformed state of conscious –
ness :
Jesus said…’Whe n you mak e the two one , and whe n yo u mak e the inside like the outside and the outside like the inside, and the above like the below, and whe n you make the male and the female o n e and the same . . . then you will enter [the Kingdom].’ 2 2 1 It appear s obvious that Buddhis t and Gnosti c Christian symbol s expres s the same inne r experience s and, whethe r t he disciple adopt s on e or the other, the essential ques t for meanin g and spatial and temporal transcendenc e is the same . Therefor e whe n Jung penetrated the depth of his psych e an d thereby gained acces s to direct knowledge arising out of hi s ow n transformative experience, he became a link in the chain of ancient mystical traditions, Buddhis t a n d Christian. O r to put it differently, in the depth of the collective unconscious – or the height of his supra-consciousnes s – Jun g me t the consciousnes s of the medieval Christian mystic , a Maste r Eckhart, and that of the Tantric master.

T h e word s expressing the ineffable experience, the union wit h th e On e Mind , or with Go d (which is beyond words anyway ) an d the tools used in the proces s ma y differ, but t he cor e of the experienc e doe s not: in the heart of it, for the briefes t moment , the gap between various traditions is closed. An d it is precisely there that I am looking for parallels betwee n Jungian and Tantri c systems . The methods and technique s that Jun g developed in the context of, and to confor m with, the Western tradition and mythological images , an d with the socio-cultural conditions of contemporary Europe and America, are less important. They reflect onl y the necessity to remain rooted in one’ s ow n culture, whic h Jun g recognized, an d whic h Tibetan Buddhist s woul d acknowledg e too. An d mos t of all, every Buddhis t woul d b e in perfec t agreement with Jung’ s statement that
‘ W e mus t ge t at the Eastern value s from within and not from without, seeking the m in ourselves . . . . ‘ 2 2 2

Dangers

Both Jun g and Tantri c Buddhist s are awar e of the latent risks inherent in the practice of their respective methods .

Jun g repeatedly warns us of the possible dangerous effects whe n releasing unconscious content s without prope r safeguards and precautions , as it may overwhelm consciousnes s a n d caus e its collapse, resulting in serious consequences ,
even psychosis . H e compare s the potential explosive power o f the archetype s to that of the released atom, and he says :
T h e archetype s have thi s peculiarity in commo n with the atomi c world, which is…that the mor e deeply the investigator penetrates into the universe of microphysic s the mor e devastating are the explosive forces he finds enchained there. 2 2 3 F or thi s reason, as already noted, it is of crucial importance to hav e a strong, well-developed psychi c structure before confronting the unconscious so mental equilibrium can be maintained.

Tantri c master s issue very similar warnings , namely, that t he method s they teach are profound but also extremely powerful an d therefore hazardous unles s the proper preparation s are mad e and the discipl e is led into the practice gradually unde r the guidance of a qualified teacher. They furthermor e stres s the importanc e of relating at all times to t he actuality of one’ s experience , to the solid, earthy aspect o f it. 2 2 4 Thi s is wher e Jun g would agree: he kne w so well h o w crucial it wa s for him to keep on with his daily work, maintain clos e contac t with hi s family, and fulfil his other obligations while in the mids t of his own confrontation with t he unconscious .

Tibetan Buddhist s urge Westerner s not to abandon the value s of their ow n culture. In fact a proper understanding o f one’ s ow n culture and being deeply rooted in it – they would say – is a prerequisite for venturing into and benefiting from practices of a foreign tradition. Ther e is also always t he dange r of grasping the literal rather than the intrinsic meanin g o f symbol s and rituals, and thereby going astray a n d getting lost in one’ s practice.

Tantri c image s visualized in meditation represent archetype s and therefore particular caution is needed in dealing with them. As every archetype has a double aspect – a light a nd a dark one – the powe r of its dark side when it suddenly emerge s from the depth of the unconscious may cause delusiona l fantasie s an d los s of touch with reality. For example, t he archetype of the Great Mothe r contains such paradoxical aspect s as nurturing and creative, as well as devouring and destructive. A fragile individual whos e consciousness is not well developed ma y become disoriented by the emergence of the archetype in its unexpected terrifying aspect. 2 2 5 I have been a witnes s to this unfortunate effect on Western students, on mor e than one occasion, at intensive meditation courses.

Ethical Issues

Atisha , the eleventh century Indian sage, responsible for a revival of Buddhis m in Tibet, said: ‘Whe n the container a n d its content s are filled with wrongs , change this adverse circumstance into the path to full awakening.’ 2 2 6 This admonition could jus t as well b e made to the people of the twentieth century. Tibetans today recognize that since we are living in an age of degeneration whe n both the environment – the containe r – and its inhabitant s – the content s – are polluted a n d afflicted with enormous and dangerous problems , this is especially the time to us e the prevailing situation as an encouragemen t to cultivate our minds , transform our outlook, or as they say, to chang e the adverse circumstances into the path to liberation. 2 2 7 Jun g on the othe r hand wa s also extremely concerned, in thi s time of confusion, with the fate of our civilization and t he dange r of humanit y destroying itself. H e discerned, however, that W e are living in wha t the Greek s called Kairos – the right time-fo r a’metamorphosi s of the gods.’. . .So muc h is at stake and so much depends on the psychologica l constitution of modern man.’ 2 2 8 According to Jung – and this is the same idea that Tibetan Buddhist s are proposing – the change mus t begin with individuals , in their ow n psyche, their greatest instrument. T o Jun g that implies self-knowledge , knowing the dark side o f the psyche , the unconscious as well as its conscious apsects , an d to reconcile the polarities. Without this know –
ledge , unconscious content s cause projections and illusions that falsify our relations with others , and that is wher e the war s begin. ‘Right action come s from right thinking, and
.. .ther e is n o cur e and n o improving of the world that doe s n o t begin with the individual himself,’ 2 2 9 says Jung. The right action and right thinking, is that not wha t Buddha taugh t 2500 year s ago?

T h e mor e conscious w e become of our unconscious drives a n d ac t accordingly, the les s contaminated with projections a r e ou r relations with the world, and the mor e open w e are to ente r into communication, yes , even communion with it. Jun g talks of society’ s need for an affective bond, the principl e of caritas, the Christian love of the neighbor. He warn s us that: ‘Wher e love stops , powe r begins , and violence , an d terror.’ 2 3 0 Compassio n is the basi c element in Buddhis t philosophy a n d psychology , and in Tibetan Buddhism it is inseparable from wisdom , the enlightened state of mind. Today the Dalai Lama , wh o is regarded as the incarnation of Avalokiteshvara, the Buddha of compassion, is teaching and bringing to the Wester n world, whereve r he goes , the ideal of compassion a s a mean s to achieve harmony in the world, and as t h e principl e of universal responsibility.

T h e Buddhis t concept of voidnes s (sunyata) is sometime s misinterpreted in the Wes t as implying annulment of ethical considerations . Jung suspected that Westerners ‘
attemp t at detachment as a way of liberation, which they learned from yogi c practices , wa s only a way of liberation from mora l responsibilities. 2 3 1 Buddhis m is on e of the mos t highly developed ethical as well a s psychological systems . Ethical issues and individual responsibility are always and without exception an integral part of its philosophy and practice. Th e rule applies to all school s an d of cours e to Tantri c Buddhism as well.

A n d Jung , a psychologis t and physician, in all his multidimensiona l work, and hi s entire life, has consistently reminde d ma n – the only carrier of consciousnes s – of hi s responsibilit y and ethical obligation to transform himself, o r shall I say , to transform God .

Conclusion

IN DRAWING to a close , I should like to mak e a few point s to highligh t the conclusions reached in m y attempt to understan d and find possibl e parallels between Buddhism a n d Jung’ s psychology .

T h e two systems wer e born and developed in areas widely apart from each other, geographically, historically, and culturally, an d wer e separated in time by a span of two and a half millenia. Yet both, despite all the differences, are concerne d with the sam e huma n problems , and have found tha t solutions are to b e sought, uniquely, within the psyche of eac h individual.

T h e overriding concern of Buddhis m is termination of suffering . Jung’ s majo r task wa s the healing of man’ s psychi c wounds . However, the Buddhis t believes that total deliveranc e from suffering i s possible ; Jung’ s view is tha t suffering i s in the natur e of life and is even a necessary ingredien t that can neve r b e completely eliminated.

T h e ultimat e goal in both systems is for us to become wha t w e truly are . For the Mahayan a Buddhis t that means to achiev e Buddhahood ; every bein g without exception h a s tha t potential. Fo r Jun g it mean s to achieve wholeness ,
realiz e one’ s Self, whic h is an urge inherent in the psyche .

T h e pat h to Buddhahoo d is extremely long, but it is believe d that b y practicing Tantri c methods it can b e reache d withi n a singl e life time . For Jung, though, selfrealization is a neve r ending process .

Progressive development of consciousnes s through introspection is the initial goal of both Buddhism and Jung’ s psychology. But the Buddhis t maintains that consciousnes s c an b e developed fully so that no unconscious content can disturb the mind, and consequently perfect control achieved

• th e state of pur e awareness . Consciousnes s to the Buddhis t is associated with bliss: knowing is happiness , unknowin g is suffering. Jung doe s not believe that pure consciousness , uncontaminated by the unconscious , can ever b e attained. Furthermore , integration of the unconscious int o consciousness , the reconciliation of opposites , entails n o t elimination of the unconscious , or the control of it, but a concessio n to both aspect s of the psyche .

T h e principle and us e of opposite s is fundamental in Jung’ s model , a s it is in Buddhism, and is particularly emphasize d in Tantri c practices .

Bot h system s require that every aspec t of the individual b e involved in the process ; nothing is to be rejected. Know –
ledg e an d intellectual understanding are important, espec –
ially in the initial stage s of the path, but they have to be complemente d by feeling1 and intuition, and the insight gained in the cours e of comtemplation or meditation has to b e translated into action and become a moral duty.

T h e path start s and ends in the psyche , the mind. Jung claim s h e doe s not mak e philosophica l or metaphysical statement s an d that hi s wor k is based on empirical evidence s only. Buddhis m b y contrast, being a religion, necessaril y deal s wit h philosophica l and metaphysical categories . However, Buddh a himself refused to answe r question s pertaining to the natur e of the Absolute ,
knowin g that philosophica l argument s create discord and confusio n an d do not add to the solution of suffering, the primar y problem . H e taught instead the Middl e Way , later to b e elaborated b y the Madhyamik a school, whos e basi c attitude i s freedom from dogmatism and the dialectical approach , attempting to resolve theoretical conflicts b y risin g to a highe r standpoint.

Thi s in a wa y is Jung’ s approach to hi s ow n work and practice . Ther e are n o definitive theories , nor therapeutic method s applicabl e indiscriminately to everyone , since ever y individua l i s uniqu e in hi s or he r specific situation.

At th e sam e time in assisting the person through hi s conflicts , an d o n hi s journe y to individuation, Jung would appl y the metho d of first bringing to consciousnes s and objectivel y observin g the facts of hi s inne r and outer life; then , b y using imaginatio n amplifying them, and raising t h e conflic t and dilemm a to a highe r level of consciousness ,
leadin g from the persona l to the transpersonal – the approac h to the numinous .

In both Tantra and Jung’ s system symbol s are abundantly mad e us e of, as vehicles and means of transforming our awarenes s and our ordinary reality into a significant one . In Tantri c Buddhism symbolic images and visualization practices are specifically defined by tradition, although there is latitude given to the meditator, and generally creative imagination is encouraged and fostered. Jung’ s model, having much less of a tradition, allows a purely individual, unstructured w a y of exercising one’ s imagination in the service of developi n g self-knowledge . Both way s lead to the Self – the center, t h e heart of the mandala .

Buddhis t teachings and Jung’ s therapeuti c methods are invariably adapted to the specific needs , conditions and capacitie s of the individual; the guru and the therapist are guide s o n the way . The y are neve r regarded as ultimate authorities : the psyche or mind of the individual – the only instrumen t through which one experience s reality – is the sol e authority . In Buddhis m on e is constantly urged to test wit h one’ s experienc e the validity of the teaching, and adop t or reject it in accordanc e with one’ s ow n findings .

Similarly Jun g ha s enormou s respec t for the integrity of the psyche , an d a trus t in its capacity to function objectively –
whe n no t interfered with – and thus to lead the individual toward s hi s true destination, hi s Self.

Both systems warn agains t danger s and urge the initiate to take necessary precautions and safeguards whe n contacting powerful inne r forces , potentially disruptive to the psychi c structur e of the personality. For this reason Tibetan Buddhism , especially in its Tantri c form, has traditionally observed a measur e of secrecy.

In both systems passions , emotions , positive or negative, a r e no t suppressed but transformed in the mind by utilizing t he very energ y they contain.

Contradictions , paradoxes , and imaginal language aboun d in Jung’ s work and in Buddhism in general, and Tantri c Buddhis m in particular, but neithe r Jung nor Buddhist s ar e concerned about that. The y are regarded as mean s of portraying the fullnes s and richnes s of life and different way s of perceiving it, which conventional languag e wit h its limitations is unabl e to express .

Tantra’ s chief concern is spiritual growth, and the remarkabl e Tantri c wa y i s on e not of asceticism but of fully experiencin g life in all its joy, spontaneity and creativity. An essentia l part of it, however, is the mental attitude, that is, t he selfles s motivation that underscore s every form of Buddhis t practice. In Tantra and in Jung’ s mode l the mundan e a n d spiritual dimensions of life are closely connected; in fact the y ar e two sides of the same reality that need to be reconciled.

In Jung’ s work, the element of compassion, the principle of Eros , is not emphasized, as it is in Tibetan Buddhism, although he too is keenly concerned with the fate of humanity, an d abov e all that of the inne r man. As a psychologis t a n d physician he know s that w e can heal ourselves only by relinquishing ego-centered pursuits , and connecting ourselve s to a larger context of life. In the proces s of it, in our depths , on the archetypal level wher e there is no separation, w e becom e related to the rest of humanity and compassion spontaneousl y arises . Nevertheless , Jung’ s psychology by necessit y ha s to hav e a les s encompassin g scope than Buddhism , a psychologica l and ethical system that has also a religious basis .

Y e t it ha s becom e obvious to m e that Tibetan Buddhist s a n d C. G . Jun g – and the alchemist s – each coming from their ow n unique directions, are pointing to us , by means of their ow n unique words and symbols , a wisdom that is universal. It ha s been said that the Wes t ha s a wealth of its o w n symbol s and there is n o need to seek other s in the East.

Indee d it would be a pity and a great loss to reject the rich Wester n symbolism . Ye t Eastern symbol s are fresh to the Wester n min d an d therefor e posses s a greater capacity to inspir e an d stimulat e the imagination, whil e unfortunatel y for man y in the Wes t our symbol s have become ossified an d thus hav e lost their intrinsi c meaning. The stirring s of the soul can com e from man y different sources ,
doe s it really matte r whic h is the one ? If it is true that the ultimat e wisdo m is on e and the same , whethe r discovered in one’ s Buddha-nature , the Self, or the Philosopher’ s Stone , w e should b e abl e to find in seemingly remote and esoteri c traditions value s whic h speak to us in a language tha t i s relevant to the Wester n world. Perhaps Jung’ s model will b e preferabl e to som e Westerners , as certain of its form s an d aspect s ma y b e mor e easily adapted to their need s an d lifestyle. Some , on the othe r hand, will find a greate r affinity to the Tibeta n model. An d some other s still, will perceiv e no contradiction betwee n the two and will b e immeasurabl y enriched b y the treasures they both so generousl y offer.

T h e appearanc e of the Tibetans in the Wes t mus t be mor e tha n the result of a historical turn of event s that began in a tragedy . I perceive in it anothe r tangible manifestation of t he la w of opposites : the abysma l deterioration of moral a n d spiritual values in our materialistic and militaristic civilization had to produc e its counter-balance, the presence of th e holy me n from Tibet, wh o descended from the top of t he world into the valleys of the Western hemisphere . As Jun g already sensed and pointed to us , there is much to learn from the East. Tibetan lamas with their profound wisdo m an d compassionat e hearts , their serene manner s a n d gentl e speech, have muc h to teach us . An d especially in their silent meditations they speak to us , each one of us individually, in a direct and forceful way. But mos t of all, the y ar e living symbol s of enlightened beings – of the highes t aspirations and attainment of which man is capable.

It is their very presenc e amon g us that is the unique and mos t significant contribution of the Tibetan tradition to the Wester n world.

Whe n the roaring, giant iron birds flew and brought the Tibetans into our midst, it marked not only the fulfillment of a n age-old prophecy: it wa s a synchronisti c momen t in whic h the worlds of spirit and matter came together. Birds, symbol s of freedom, in their iron form became the vehicles of som e extraordinary huma n beings who , in their minds a n d heart s ar e carriers of true spiritual freedom in its living, actualized form. So , the iron birds have joined their spiritual counterparts .

Coda

It is extremely difficult to understand Tantric Buddhism, a n d it is even mor e difficult to write about it, since its foundation lies not in knowledg e but in individual experience . Th e sam e is true of Jung’ s work. Thus I am painfully awar e of the inadequacy, and the omissions and inevitable distortions that a book like this mus t contain.

Fro m the outse t I have been also well awar e that the task I
have given myself wa s tremendously ambitious, considering t he limitles s proportions of the subjec t matter. But it wa s eve n muc h mor e than that: the task wa s awesome . Ther e w a s n o possibility of encompassing it all, and conveying t he numinous , as well as the dynamic , flowing, everchangin g aspec t of it, which is primarily the way I have experienced both systems .

With this in mind, for a long time I could not start writing.

I could se e the image of the future work in my inner vision, b ut I could not put it into words . Then I had a dream in which a voice gently whispered to me : Th e Self and Padma.’
T h e Self an d Padma , the Western and Eastern symbol s of spiritual unfoldmen t an d totality – this wa s wha t m y bookto-b e wa s all about. Wha t else needed to be said: it wa s all there , told in four brief words . But this wa s only the beginning. An d the dream wa s a signal that I could now start writing. Shortly afterwards I embarked on the journey.

Indeed it wa s like a journey, long, hard, and tortuous , with som e moment s of nea r despair, alternating with those of exhilaration. I soon realized that the act of writing and building this book wa s like a meditative process . It wa s like an alchemica l opus too, starting with the massa confusa, and leading up through the various stages to final crystallization into its essence. And along the way, as the work was building, its inne r meaning wa s gradually unfolding to me .

Afte r I had gon e around and around a long, tedious road, intermittently getting lost and finding my way back, slowly, a n d painfully or joyously circumambulating, I came to the sam e point I started from, but this time the message wa s imprinted deeply into m y mind and soul:
THE SELF AND PADMA

Notes

1 Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (Bedford:
Gordo n Fraser, 1959), p. 1.

2 Rahula , op. cit., pp . 45-50.
3 Lam a Thubte n Yeshe , ‘Turning the Wheel, ‘ in Wisdom Energy 2 (Ulverston: Wisdo m Culture, 1979), p. 24.

4 Edward Conze , Buddhism (London: Faber and Faber, 1963)/ P- 93-
5 Nanc y Wilson Ross , Buddhism; A Way of Life and Thought (Ne w York: Vintage Books , 1981), p. 44.
6 Gampopa , The Jewel Ornament of Liberation (Berkeley:
Shambhala , 1971), p. 7.

7 Charle s Muses , East-West Fire; Schopenhauer’s Optimism and the Lankavatara Sutra (London: John Watkins ,
1955), P- 458 K. Venkat a Ramanan , Nagarjuna’s Philosophy (New York: Samue l Weiser, 1966), p. 145.

9 Ibid., p. 299.

10 Ibid., p. 297.

11 Tenzi n Gyatso , Th e Fourteenth Dalai Lama , The Buddhism of Tibet and The Key to the Middle Way (London:
Georg e Allen & Unwin , 1975), pp. 21-22.

12 Lam a Thubte n Zopa Rinpoche , ‘The Thre e Principal Aspect s of the Path to Enlightenment,’ in Lama Thubten Yesh e an d Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche , Wisdom Energy (London: Wisdo m Publications , 1982), p. 82.

13 In Ze n this is called the ‘monke y mind, ‘ jumping from o n e place to another.

14 Gesh e Ngawan g Dhargyey,Tibetan Tradition of Mental Development (Dharamsala : Library of Tibetan Works a n d Archives , 1974), p. 58.

15 It is interesting to not e that in a discourse I heard, one Lam a equated sin with confusion.

16 Lama Thubte n Zopa Rinpoche , op. cit., pp. 84-86.
17 Tenzin Gyatso , op. cit., p. 46.

18 I have often seen and heard psychiatric patients say in group therapy that they forgot about their ow n troubles, their ow n miserabl e lives, as they wer e in the proces s of trying to help anothe r fellow patient.

Also in an experimental project I conducted in a psychiatri c clinic, showing short art films to schizophreni c or othe r severely disturbed patients , I wa s impressed with their positive responses , the enthusiasm and inspiration that thes e films generated. Many patient s told me , even months later, that the weekly viewing of the films had made a significant difference in their dull lives, and some furthermore felt less of a nee d to rely on medications .

19 Lama Thubte n Zopa Rinpoche , op. cit., p. 58.
20 Lam a Thubte n Yeshe , “Karm a and Emptiness,” in op.
cit., p. 52.

21 Skandhas in Buddhis t teachings are our aggregates : the body , feelings , perceptions , impulse s and emotions ,
act s of consciousness .

22 Conze , op. cit., pp. 130-131.

23 The Lankavatara Sutra, translated by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuk i (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1932), p. 67.

24 Gesh e Ngawan g Dhargyey, op. cit., p. 29. 25 Dalai Lama , My Land and My People (New York: Potala, 1962), p. 241.

26 Gesh e Ngawan g Dhargyey, op. cit., p. 29. 27 Mircea Eliade, Yoga, Immortality and Freedom (Princeton:
Princeton University Press , 1970), p. 202.

28 Karl Springer, Tibeta n Buddhism in the West / The Tibetan Journal, Vol. I, no . 3-4 (Autumn 1976), p. 76.
29 This , onc e again, is very muc h in the spirit of Buddha w h o taught different people using different approaches, methods , and philosophies depending on their inclinations, tastes , temperaments , levels of education and spiritual development.

30 S.B . Dasgupta , An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1974), p. 54.
31 Ibid., p. 145. 32 Lam a Anagarika Govinda , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism (London: Ride r & Company , 1959), pp. 94-

96. 33 Dasgupta , op. cit., p. 145.
    34 Ibid., p . 146.
    35 Th e Vo w of Mahamudra/ by Garmapa Rinchen Dorje, in C. A . Muses , ed. Esoteric Teachings of the Tibetan Tantra (Ne w York: Altai Press , 1961), p. 304.
    36 Lam a Govinda , op. cit., p. 103.

37 Idem.
38 Ibid., p. 104.

39 Dasgupta , op. cit., p. 188. 40 Ibid., pp . 193-194.

41 Herbert Guenther, The Tantric View of Life (Boulder:
Shambhala , 1976), p. 37.
42 Quote d in ibid., p. 38.

43 Dasgupta , op. cit., p. 187.
44 Giusepp e Tucci, The Theory of Practice of the Mandala
(Ne w York: Samue l Weiser, 1970), p. 78.

45 C. G . Jung , Memories, Dreams, Reflections (Ne w York:
Vintag e Books , 1961), pp . 44-45.

46 Jung , op. cit., p. xii.

47 Ibid., p. 222.
48 Ibid., p. 179.

49 Ibid., p. 188.

50 Ibid., p. 194. 51 Ibid., p. 195.

52 Ibid., p. 193. (Italics added)
53 Ibid., p. 196.

54 Wem.

55 Zfa’d., p. 199.

56 Idem.
57 Jbid., p. 204.
58 Idem. 59 C. G . Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology
(Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1966), p. 220.
60 C. G . Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious
(Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1969), p. 44.
61 Ibid., p. 42.
62 Ibid., p. 43.

63 Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p. 66. 64 Jung , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious,
p. 48.

65 Jung , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p. 67.

66 Ibid., p. 68.
67 Ibid., p. 238.
68 C. G . Jung, Aion (Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1959), p. 63.
69 C. G . Jung , ‘Answe r to Job, ‘ in Psychology and Religion:
West and East (Princeton: Princeton University Press ,
1969), p. 468.
70 Jung , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p. 219.

71 Jung , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche (Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1969), p. 90.

72 Ibid., p. 91. 73 Russell Lockhart, ‘Eros in Language , Myth, and Dream, ‘
Quadrant (Fall 1978), p. 66.

74 Levy-Bruhl’ s term describing the basic nature of primitive mentality.

75 C. G . Jung , Psychology and Alchemy (Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1968), p. 34.
‘Ou r gold i s not the commo n gold. ‘ It is the gold within ma n – the gold within each of us .

76 Jung, Psychology and Alchemy, p. 244.

77 Ibid., p. 312.

78 Jung, Aion, p. 264. 79 C. G . Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis (Princeton: Princet on University Press , 1970), p. 3.
80 Ibid., pp. 106-114.

81 Ze n koans perform such a function.

82 Quoted in Ralph Metzner, Maps of Consciousness (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. , 1971), pp. 94-95.
83 C. G . Jung, Alchemical Studies (Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1967), pp. 237-241.
84 Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 63.
85 Ibid., pp. 534-540. 86 Ibid., pp. 554-556. 87 Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 197. 88 Jung, The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 520.
89 Ibid. , pp. 525-526.

90 Ibid., pp. 421-422.
91 Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 538.
92 Jung, Aion, p. 261.

93 Jung , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 124.
94 Jung , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p. 110.
95 C. G . Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy (Princeton:
Princeton University Press , 1966), p. 41.

96 C. G . Jung , ‘Commentar y on the Secret of the Golden Flower,’ in his Psychology and the East (Princeton:
Princeton University Press , 1978), p. 18.

97 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, pp. 7-8.

98 Jung , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 131. 99 Jung , ‘Commentar y on the Secret of the Golden Flower,’
p p . 18-19.

100 Jung , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 89. 101 Jane t Dallett, ‘Active Imagination in Practice,’ in Murra y Stein, ed. Jungian Analysis (La Salle: Ope n Court, 1982), p. 182.

102 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 75. 103 Ibid., p. 46.

104 Idem.
105 C. G . Jung , Psychology and Religion: West and East
(Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1969), p. 334.

106 Jung , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 143.

107 Ibid., p. 144.
108 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 71.

109 Jung , Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 528.
110 Jung , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 145.
111 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 108.
112 Ira Progoff, Th e Man Wh o Transforms Consciousness,’
Eranos Jahrbuch, XXXV (1966), pp. 138-139. (Italics added)
113 Ibid., p. 139.

114 Ibid., pp. 139-140. 115 Anagarika Govinda , The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy (London: Rider & Co. , 1961), p. 44.

116 Ibid., p. 39. 117 Herbert Guenthe r and Chogyam Trungpa , The Dawn of Tantra (Boulder: Shambhala , 1975), p. 52.
118 Tucci, op. cit., pp . 72-73. 119 Guenthe r an d Trungpa , op. cit., p. 47.
120 Lam a Thubte n Yeshe , Silent Mind, Holy Mind (Ulverston: Wisdo m Culture , 1978), pp. 34-35.
121 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, pp. 51-52.
122 Govinda Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p. 27.

123 Gampopa , op. cit., pp. 31-32.
124 Lam a Thubte n Yeshe , Turnin g the Wheel, ‘ p. 20.

125 Not e deleted.

126 C. G . Jung , Man and His Symbols (New York: Dell Publishing Co. , 1964), p. 88.
127 Govinda , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, pp. 91-92.
128 Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 48.

129 Michae l Adams , ‘The Benzene Uroboros,’ Spring (1981),
p p . 149-161.

130 Erich Neumann , The Great Mother (Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1963), pp. 332-335.
131 Govinda , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p. 192.

132 Ibid., p. 172.

133 C. G . Jung , Psychological Types (Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1971), p. 446.
134 Nathan Katz, ‘Anima and mKha ‘-‘gro-ma: A Critical Comparative Study of Jung and Tibetan Buddhism,’ The Tibetan Journal, Vol. 2, No . 3 (Autumn 1977), pp. 13-43.
135 Jung , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p. 192.

136 S . K. Ramachandr a Rao, Tibetan Meditation; Theory and Practice (Ne w Delhi: Arnold-Heineman, 1979) p. 32.

137 Jung , Aion, p. 11.
138 Ibid., p. 14.
139 Jung , Psychology and Alchemy, p. 13.
140 Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 142.
141 Edward Edinger, Ego and Archetypes (New York: Penguin Books , 1972), p. 102.
142 Jung , Psychology and Alchemy, p. 306. 143 Ibid., p. 313.

144 W . Y. Evans-Wentz , ed. The Tibetan Book of the Dead
(Ne w York: Galaxy, i960), p. xxxvi.

145 Francesca Fremantle and Chdgyam Trungpa, The Tibetan Book of the Dead (Boulder: Shambhala , 1975), p.i .

146 Ibid., p. 10. 147 Evans-Wentz , op. cit., p. li.

148 Fremantl e and Trungpa , op. cit., pp. 5-10. 149 Jung , “Commentar y on the Secret of the Golden Flower,”
p. 30.

150 Anagarika Govinda , Creative Meditation and Multi-
Dimensional Consciousness (Wheaton: Theosophical Publishing House , 1976), p. 61.

151 C. G . Jung , The Psychogenesis of Mental Disease (Princeton: Princeton University Press , i960), p. 270.
152 Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 353.

153 Jung , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 256.

154 Ibid., p. 350.

155 Jung , Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 109.
156 Jung , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p.

283. 157 Jung , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 361. 158 Jung , Aion, p. 165.
     159 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, pp. 319-320.

160 Jung , Psychological Types, pp. 449-450.
161 Jung , Psychology and Alchemy, p. 137. 162 Jung , Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 197.
163 Jung , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 349.

164 Jung , Ibid., p. 185.

165 Jung , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 279.
166 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 34. 167 Ibid., p. 192. 168 Govinda , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, pp. 71-77. 169 Govinda , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional Consciousness, p. 30.
170 Ibid., p. 31.
171 The Lankavatara Sutra, p. 48.
172 C. G . Jung, Septem Sermones ad Mortuos, in his Memories,
Dreams, Reflections, p. 379.

173 Pleroma is the Gree k word for ‘plenitude.’
174 Jung , Septem Sermones ad Mortuos, p. 379.

175 Ibid., p. 382.

176 Jung , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 269.

177 Govinda , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p. 77.
178 Govinda , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional Consciousness, p. 105.

179 Fritjof Capra , The Tao of Physics (Boulder: Shambhala ,
1975), P- 99.
180 Quote d in Beatrice Suzuki, Impressions of Mahayana Buddhism (Kyoto: Eastern Buddhis t Society, 1940),
p. 48.
181 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 312.
182 Jung , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, pp. 75-76.

183 Ibid., p. 75.

184 Ibid., p. 205.

185 Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 382.

186 Jung , Psychological Types, p. 453.
187 Ramanan , op. cit., p. 50.
188 Ibid., p. 258.

189 Ibid., p. 329.

190 C. G . Jung , ‘Foreword to Suzuki’ s Introduction to Zen Buddhism,’ in hi s Psychology and the East, p. 154.
191 Govinda , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional Consciousness, pp. 48-49.

192 Jung , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 351. 193 C. G . Jung , Letters (Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1973), Vol. 1, p. 236.

194 Ibid., Vol. 2, p. 248.
195 Jung , Man and His Symbols, p. 81.
196 Jung , Aion, p. 33. 197 Dhargyey , op. cit., p. 92. 198 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, pp. 7-8. 199 C. G . Jung , Psychological Analysis of Nietzsche’s Zarathustra, Vol. 3 (Winte r 1935), p. 23.
200 Ibid., p. 4. 201 Jung , Aion, p. 13. 202 Govinda , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional Consciousness, p. 141.
203 Migue l Serrano , C. G. Jung and Hermann Hesse; A
Record of Two Friendships (Ne w York: Schoken Books ,
1966), p. 88.

204 Jung , Letters, Vol. 2, p. 314.
205 Idem. 206 Jung , ‘Commentar y o n The Secret of the Golden Flower,’
p. 56.

207 Jung , Alchemical Studies pp. 59-64.
208 Jung , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 81.
209 Jung , ‘Psychological Commentar y on The Tibetan Book of Great Liberation/ p. 111.

210 Jung , ‘Commentary on The Secret of the Golden Flower,’
p. 13.

211 Idem.
212 Jung , ‘Psychological Commentar y o n The Tibetan Book of Great Liberation,’ p. 134.

213 Jung , Psychology and Alchemy, pp. 99-101.
214 Jung , ‘Psychological Commentar y on The Tibetan Book of Great Liberation,’ p. 120.
215 Ibid., p. 125.
216 Ibid., pp . 132-133.
217 Ira Progoff, The Cloud of Unknowing (New York: Dell Publishing Co. , 1957), pp. 23-38.

218 Elaine Pagels , The Gnostic Gospel (Ne w York: Vintage Books , 1979), pp . xx-xxi.

219 Ibid., pp. 149-161.
220 Quote d in Pagels , op. cit., p. 161. (Italics added).

221 Quote d in Pagels , op. cit., p. 155.
222 Jung , ‘Psychological Commentar y on The Tibetan Book of Great Liberation,’ p. 112.
223 Jung , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious,
p. 224.

224 Guenthe r and Trungpa , op. cit., p. 89.

225 Erich Neumann, The Origins and History of Consciousness
(Princeton: Princeton University Press , 1954), p. 322.

226 Gesh e Rabten and Gesh e Ngawang Dhargyey, Advice from A Spiritual Friend (London: Wisdom Publications ,
1984), p. 65.

227 Ibid., pp . 65-66.

228 Jung , The Undiscovered Self (New York: The Ne w American Library, 1959), p. 123.
229 Jung , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p. 226.

230 Jung , The Undiscovered Self, pp. 117-118.
231 Jung , ‘Psychological Commentar y on The Tibetan Book of Great Liberation,’ p. 135.

Glossary

Buddhism

Unles s indicated otherwise , all words are Sanskrit.

alaya-vijnana ‘store consciousness, ‘ the source of all consciousnes s in a person, according to the Cittamatra school of Buddhis t tenet s Arhat one wh o has attained complete liberation from suffering, ha s attained nirvana Avalokiteshvara the Buddha of compassion bardo the state between death and rebirth bodhicitta the enlightened motive or attitude possessed by Bodhisattvas : the desire to become a Buddha in order to benefit all beings Bodhisattva an enlightenment-bound being Buddha a fully enlightened being; one wh o has overcome all negativities and completed all good qualities dakini (Tibetan : khadoma) a symboli c being in female form, w h o embodie s blis s and wisdo m and acts as a spiritual helpe r Dharma spiritual teachings ; the doctrine of the Buddha ;
universa l law enlightenment the state of being a Buddha , whe n all duality is transcended into absolute unity; the eradication of all negative states of mind and accumulation of all positive qualities Hinayana early school of Buddhism, southern Buddhism, of whic h Theravada is the only surviving system karma the law of caus e and effect; the consquence s of our

120 Glossary

thoughts , speech and actions in this and future lives karuna compassion Mahayana later school s of Buddhism; northern Buddhism Manjushri the Buddh a of wisdom mantra sacred word, auditory symbol mudra ritual symboli c gestur e nirvana the state beyond suffering; freedom from karma a n d delusion and repeated rebirth in samsara padma lotus blossom; the symbol of spiritual unfoldment prajna supreme knowledge and intuitive, liberating wisdom; femal e principle sadhana spiritual exercise samadhi a deep state of undisturbed single-pointed concentration samsara cyclic existence of continuous , uncontrolled rebirth into the various realms of existence; cycle of continuous menta l an d physical suffering satori (Japanese ) in Zen Buddhism anothe r name for enlightenmen t skandhas a huma n being’ s aggregates : body , feelings , perceptions , impulse s and emotions , acts of consciousnes s sunyata emptiness , voidness ; all phenomen a are said to be empt y of inherent existence , or existence from their ow n side ; the interdependenc e of all phenomen a Tantra the esoteri c teachings of Buddha that lead quickly to enlightenment; the methods and practices *for quickly attaining enlightenment; Vajrayana Tao (Chinese ) eternal wa y of the cosmi c order Tar a a feminine aspec t of Buddha mind thangka (Tibetan) religious painting usually executed on cloth an d framed in brocade up ay a method ; mal e principle vajra (Tibetan: *dorje)* diamond, adamantine sceptre, symbol o f indestructibility; the mal e principle of action Vajrayana the ‘diamond vehicle ‘ to enlightenment, part of t he Mahayana ; Tantri c school of Buddhism Vajra Yogini a dakini of the highes t rank, depicted in brilliant red colour and surrounded by a halo of flames yidam (Tibetan) a male or female deity, or Buddha, invoked in certain Tantri c meditation practices

Jung

anima the femal e aspec t of the male psyche anima mundi the Soul of the World archetypes content s of the collective unconscious ; primordial images , an d patterns of symbol formation which recur throughout mankin d collective unconscious the portion of the psyche whos e unconscious content s are hereditary and belonging to man –
kind in general; by contras t the personal unconscious comprise s persona l experience s that have been repressed a n d forgotten ego a comple x of idea s whic h constitute s the center of one’ s field of consciousnes s and appear s to posses s a high degre e of continuity an d identity eros the principle of relatednes s individuation the proces s of the integration of the personality; the ques t for meaning mandala a Sanskrit word for circle; a pattern of symboli c square s an d circles Philemon Jung’ s phantasy image of an old man who m he called Philemon, and wh o represented superior insight; to Jun g h e wa s like a guru pleroma a Gree k word for plenitude psyche the totality of all psychi c processes , conscious and unconscious Self the cente r of personality, the symbol of wholeness , the principle of orientation and meaning; the culmination of t he psychi c development synchronicity acausal connecting principle; a meaningful coincidence whe n an inner and outer event come together transcendent function the transformation of personality arising from the union of conscious and unconscious content s

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